| Content |
| Larsson's Adoption of Early Concerto Forms |
| Classical Influences |
| The Soloist |
| Thematic Metamorphosis |
| There is Virtue in Moderation |
Larsson's Adoption of Early Concerto Forms.
As noted in the previous discussion of Larsson's compositional styles, it is obvious that Larsson was drawn as much to the past as he was to the present. In The Nordic Sound John Yoell makes an analogy between Larsson and the common Swedish praxis of always taking the middle course[1]. As the Swedish economy is featured as being a mixture of capitalism and socialism, and Sweden itself aspires to be neutral, Larsson appeared to act as the middle course of Swedish art music, in the first half of the twentieth century. Even though Larsson went through many contrasting styles of composition, he always approached them with modesty. Larsson's neo-classical style was always affected by atonal elements, and, on the contrary, Larsson's dodecaphonic writings, because of his own designed twelve tone techniques, are somewhat triadic and therefore more tonal sounding than Schänberg's twelve tone music.
First of all, I will clarify that I have never felt obligated to follow the strict rules of dodecaphonic procedures, but instead made a more liberal use of the resources available within such a system..... Again, I want to stress the fact that I wish not to be viewed as a follower of dodecaphonic writing......I have in my own way made use of all twelve pitches and tried to make as beautiful sonorities as possible. My highest goal has always been to have the music match the clarity, transparency, and sonorous beauty expected in conventional music.[2]
By referring to the biographical article "Hur jag bärjade" discussed in chapter I, Larsson seems to have had a mild interest towards expressing his musical ideas and inspiration verbally, in the form of program notes. On the contrary, Larsson, together with Hjalmar Gullberg and Pontus Boman, created a the new type of radio program, the "lyrical suite", consisting of poetry readings interspersed with musical interlude. In the article Den svenske tons�ttarens situation, discussed above, Larsson said that he had not been influenced by the new trends of expressing musical ideal nor by any new methods of creating sound,, such as electronic music. Meanwhile, Larsson himself was the first Swedish composer to write a solo concerto for a non-orchestral instrument such as the saxophone. In other words, he commonly presented himself as being conservatively traditional and a newly liberated thinker at the same time. His Saxophone Concerto also preceded such major concertos written for the instrument such as Alexander Glasonouv's Saxophone Concerto and the Concertino da Camera by Jacque Ibert. Therefore, Larsson had not any other concertos for the instrument, which he could apply as a model for his own composition. Considering his admiration for Mozart and his frequent return to neo-classical style throughout his career, it is obvious that Larsson was inspired by the past. Not only was he inspired by the classical period but also by the Baroque period, as heard in his Sinfonietta (1932), which made its debut in Florence, Italy in the year 1934.
In the middle of the 1930s, a row of pieces emerged, all with a new color, dominated by Mozart's mildness, light texture and with a entertaining and pleasing approach; The Saxophone concerto, so often performed, Divertimento, Serenade for strings and if not foremost, the first Sonatine for piano op.16, where eighteenth century and twentieth century melts together in the first movement, in an extremely elegant synthesis. In the third movement a new nuance emerges through the pastel of neo-classicism: A lyrical and controlled romantic expression - Larsson is not playing, nor bantering, he is singing.[3]
The purpose of the following is to determine how many of various influences from the history of the concerto genre came prevailed composing the Saxofon Konsert, op.14.
The concerto genre may be viewed as a counterpart of the opera. Its structure is similar to that of the dacapo aria, which is in ABA form with surrounding ritornello, and an embellished solo line in the recapitulation. Generally speaking, Larsson kept his form close to the ABA structure. As the sonata form is in a sense an ABA structure, it makes it easy to place all three movements of Larsson's Saxophone concerto under the ABA format. The fact that one solo part is the main focus of the composition makes the concerto genre even more similar to that of the aria. Along with the development of the concerto the virtuoso became a new phenomenon. Similar to Larsson's concerto, written in dedication to the virtuoso saxophonist Sigurd Rascher, earlier compositions of the concerto genre were already established as being a solo part with an embellished melody line and a cadenza, accompanied by an ensemble - all of which are features derived from the opera aria. As the concerto developed it came to be a common musical form in four different areas:
1) During the beginning of the eighteenth century the concerto became a public event performed by professional musicians. Paris was a major center for concertos and the Concert spirituel society was organizing concerts with sacred music. These concertos were later secularized and the publishers in Paris became the leading distributors of concerto music.
2) Private concerts among the educated class exploited the concerto media.
3) The concerto was used as an intermission entertainment in the theater.
4) The concerto was used in church to separate different portions of the service.
Early on, especially with Italian composers the exposure of a soloist started to emerge. Two major composers, Corelli (1653-1713) and Torelli (1658-1709), became models for the concerto. Specific influences from these composers is not evident in the Saxophone Concerto itself, but both Corelli and Torelli are responsible for the standard format of each movement and the overall ritornello form for the concerto genre. Larsson's awareness of these composers contributions to the concerto genre is most obviously determined by his concertino series (1953-7), consisting of twelve concertinos. Larsson's idea of a concertino series most likely found its origin in Corelli's op.6, which consist of twelve concerti grossi and Torelli's op.8, also a series of twelve concertos. Being that Larsson's series was clearly designed for intermediate musicians, it resembles Hindemith's Kammermusik series as well, even though this series includes a variation in solistic texture more closely resembling that of Bach's Brandenburg Concertos. Not only did Larsson depend strongly on the tradition of the past when composing, but also when teaching. He was always concerned with his students� awareness of traditional forms. Larsson's student Jan Carlstedt recalls:
Larsson always managed to capture the quality of each student's personal characteristics, still integrating it with an awareness and dedication to the past.[4]
Corelli�s Concerti grossi (Op.6) contains works in both concerto da chiesa style and concerto da camera style. They follow the style developed in his sonatas, and consist, therefore, of four movements. The concertino and ripieno usually deal with the same styles and themes. Often the ripieno only doubles the parts of the concertino. As in his sonatas, the dance suite stands as a basic element for his concerti grossi. Larsson followed up on this dance influenced finale in the Saxophone Concerto.
The finale is a playful rondo, a dialogue between two themes, both with a graceful dance character. The first one consist of an energetic forte-phrase in the strings, followed by a contrasting smooth, floating phrase in the solo part. The second theme is more jocular in its character. Larsson was during those years especially fond of this second thematic idea, which he subsequently used, in a modified format, for his Serenade fär str�korkester.[5]
Torelli, on the other hand became the model for the three movement concerto which also developed into a basic form for Vivaldi. The way in which Torelli used ritornello form, by having the first and last ritornello in the tonic and internal ritornellos in related keys, also became a standard for Vivaldi�s works. There is also a clear difference in the motivic material between the solo part and the accompaniment in Torelli's concertos. Typical examples, bearing the above described features, are found in Torelli's op.8.
The last movement in Larsson's concerto is the movement in which the ritornello structure is most applicable. The thematic material in the first tutti theme is to a certain extent differentiated from the motivic material in the solo episode, therefore reflecting the Torelli model. However, as the movement progresses the motivic relation between soloist and accompaniment becomes more united. In bar 33 the motive of the second tutti theme is passed to the soloist, which leads to a unison statement between soloist and first violin. In the B, or development section, the thematic unification between soloist and accompaniment is complete and thus resembles the idea of united thematic material - as established by the Corelli model, though by itself this section does not belong to the true ritornello form. Harmonically, there are difficulties associated with the determination of the relation between Larsson's finale and the Torelli model. Since Larsson did not use a clearly established ritornello form, but instead made use of two different tutti themes, there is harmonically not an arch shaped presentation of the tuttis, as in the Torelli model. On a smaller level however, the second tutti theme is presented in G-D-G, giving a sense of Torelli's tonal scheme. In Viewing the two tutti themes as one unit of the ritornello form, the presentation of the first which is in D and the second tutti theme in G, the movement is given, harmonically, a rounded form, which is amplified by the shift to triple meter for the second tutti theme area. Thus, the finale can be associated with the Torelli model.
In an interview by Hebert Connor, Larsson himself expressed the value of autodidact composing by copying old masters:
........van Gohg copied old masters, Bach copied Vivaldi's, Buxtehude's and other master's works. They learned the craft by imitation.[6]
Vivaldi (1678-1741) composed his concertos according to the Torelli model. However, Vivaldi himself is very flexible within his own style. Even so, in Vivaldi�s concertos the three movement form, fast-slow-fast, are clearly established. As in Larsson's concerto, Vivaldi's middle movements often appear in a texture resembling that of chamber music. For Vivaldi, the ritornello form is used in the outer movements. Each ritornello appears in a different key, and the solo line contains motives independent from the tutti. The number of tutti is normally four. Even though Larsson's finale is in the form of a sonata form with two different tutti themes, the exposition remains within Vivaldi's standardization by having four tutti sections. After the opening ritornello in the tonic, Vivaldi generally places the entrance of the first solo section in the dominant. More than an analogy of the relationship between primary and secondary theme of the sonata form, this stands as a predecessor to the type of double exposition, discussed in the analysis of the first movement's exposition, in chapter III of this document.
As previously noted, Larsson's tutti statement of the opening theme in the first movement begins on the fourth scale degree, and therefore creates a contrast in tonal area, resembling common praxis in the Vivaldi concertos. In Vivaldi's music, the following harmonic progression may progress to such closely related key as relative minor, subdominant, or mediant by means of any route. In the finale of Larsson's concerto a modulation of the tutti is located in the exposition and is limited to the subdominant of which is G. In both Vivaldi and Larsson ritornello sections are clearly harmonically stable and clear melody lines. The solo part is longer and modulating. In Vivaldi both tutti and solo sections are normally harmonically open-ended and cannot stand by themselves. In Larsson this applies only to the tutti sections, which are open ended. The solo episodes, on the other hand, are by Larsson brought to a close by a resolving cadence. As the finales of Vivaldi's concertos often borrow their character from the dance suite - the gigue - and are often in binary form, the same features are to be found in Larsson's finale.
For the purpose of providing a concrete example of a typical Vivaldi concerto, the Concerto for two violins in A minor Op.3 no.8 has been examined. As one would expect, the opening allegro is in the typical ritornello form with four tutti sections. the tutti and solo themes of this movement are harmonically independent. Also illustrated is Vivaldi's flexibility beyond a theoretically strict ritornello form. In the first solo section the tutti closing theme is inserted and in the second tutti and solo section more interaction between the two appears. The key scheme is simple and modulates to the relative major and the minor subdominant. The finale begins with a tutti in unison. The same unison texture is found in the very first beats of the tutti in Larsson's finale. Furthermore, the Vivaldi's tutti has a rhythmic character which reflects seriousness and dignity, while the solo progresses through sections of cantabile melody. A similar relationship between tutti and solo appears in Larsson�s finale, even though Larsson's solo part is highly virtuoso and figurated.
Vivaldi later became a model for the future composers, Locatelli and Tartini. In Locatelli�s (1695-1764) Concerto for Violin op. 3 no 1 one may find features, standardized by his predecessor. For example, there are four tutti in the first movement and three tutti in the second movement. The solo part borrows material from the tutti and develops it. The tutti and solo sections both become shorter and shorter as the movement goes along. Before the final tutti there is a long cadenza that can be viewed as an inserted capriccio, which remains in the dominant. Tartini�s (1692-1770) Violin Concerto in A minor D.115 has a simple key scheme. The first movement is divided into solo parts that are rhythmically free with cantabile melody and tutti sections that are rhythmically unified. The middle movement is similar to chamber music with a more refined conversation between the instruments. The solo part has an aria like melody in binary form. The third movement resembles the first in the way the tutti and solo alternate with more or less rhythmically unified sections.
It is, therefore, possible to determine that Larsson has not traveled extensively from the Italian creators of the ritornello form in the concerto genre. Even though his ritornello format is transformed into a sonata form, the finale presents the above described features of early Italian ritornello writing.
By the overall influences of Italian composers throughout Europe at the turn of the century (1700), the Italian style of concerto writing was naturally exported. Not even Bach could resist the format of the Italian concerto. Similar, Larsson states his respect for Bach.
One always returns to Bach - it is the need of formal clarity and concentration that force both me and my contemporary colleagues to do so.[7]
Bach went further than Vivaldi in terms of a more varied texture of the accompaniment and a closer motivic relationship between solo and tutti. In Concerto for Violin in E major, BWV 1042, both of these features are obvious. Even though there are no literary sources that mention Vivaldi or other contemporary Italian composers as being an influence on Bach's concerto writing, the characteristics of his style point towards the Italian traditions of concerto writing. Bach's interest for Vivaldi and his contemporaries was probably due to the wide range of the Italian repertoire which became available to the Weimar court orchestra in 1712-1713. From Vivaldi, Bach adapted the clear melodic contours, the distinct outlines of the outer parts, the motorious rhythm, and the clear modulation scheme[8]. Bach, perhaps encouraged by Johann Gottfried Walter ( a keen student of Italian music in concertante style), transcribed six concertos to organ and sixteen concertos to keyboard, from various Italian composers. Nine of these twenty-two concertos were originally written by Vivaldi[9].
The first allegro of the Violin Concerto in E Major, BWV 1042 is in dacapo form with the middle section modulating to the relative minor, the subdominant's relative minor and the dominant relative minor. The A section only touches the dominant. It is unclear as to whether or not this movement has clear solo episodes and tutti sections. In the A section the intense interaction between solo and orchestra, the use of the same thematic material, and the shift between solistic embellishment over the tutti theme and sections with soloist and orchestra in homophonic texture, suggest that the ritornello design has been taken under consideration but is strongly modified into a more elaborate texture.
In the accompanying chart three tutti sections have been determined (in the A section) at bar 1-12, 25-31 and 43-49. In other words, the sequential second phrase of the opening theme becomes the returning ritornello for the A section. Harmonically, this distinction can be verified by the turn to the dominant at 25 and the establishment of the same thematic material presented in the tonic again at 43 (the actual return to the tonic key area appears already in bar 35). By considering the return of the very first opening triad in E major, at 12 and 35, it might be appropriate to divide this section into a statement of the theme(s), followed by two variations of it; thus, main statement 1-12, first variation 12-34 and second variation 35-52. The nature of the variation is created by a continuous presentation of the main idea, alternated back and forth between soloist and orchestra. In combination to this texture the soloist inserts elaborate figurative passages, altered with homophonic statements of the thematic material. Even though the A section is developmental by its texture and the continuously partial return of the thematic material in varied form, it could in the context of a sonata form be defined as the exposition. However, due to the lack of a second theme area it is by no means equal to the sonata form as we know it in the classic period despite the modulation to the dominant. Still, this movement brings along association with the sonata form and thereby the finale of Larsson's concerto. In contrast to Bach, the two different tutti themes in Larsson's finale can be representative of two different theme groups. Although the second tutti theme appears in the subdominant it still suggests the design of the sonata form. The elaboration of the ritornello form found in Larsson harkens back to Bach's adoption of the same elements.
The B section in Bach, on the other hand, is clearly developmental. Supported by the second violin and viola in contrapuntal texture, the new lyrical melody introduced by the first violin in bar 57 strengthens the definition of this as a development. This element of a new theme is lacking in the development of Larsson's finale, which makes it less similar to a standard development. As the association with the sonata form was represented by two different themes in Larsson's exposition, Bach presents more elements of a standard development by the introduction of a new theme. In addition, the harmonic progression in the Bach from c# minor through A major and f# minor to g# minor, and the progression g minor, A major and B major, strongly illustrate a development section. Both composers have approached the standard way of writing, in their own time, with modification; Bach being less conservative than his contemporaries, while Larsson emerges to be less progressive than even his predecessors. Larsson confirms that:
The one who is serious with his writing always returns to Bach.[10]
BWV 1042, 1st movement:
|
Sec. |
A |
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B |
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Exp. |
|
|
|
|
|
Dev. |
|
|
|
|
Cad. |
|
Rit. |
T1 |
S1 |
T2 |
S2 |
|
T3 |
S3 |
T4 |
|
S4 |
|
|
|
Solo |
|
P |
|
|
|
|
N |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Tut. |
P |
|
P� |
|
|
P |
(N) |
P� |
|
|
|
|
|
Key |
I |
|
V |
|
I |
|
vi |
|
IV |
ii |
iii |
|
|
Bar |
1 |
12 |
25 |
31 |
35 |
43 |
53 |
70 |
76 |
95 |
108 |
121 |
|
Var. |
|
|
1 |
|
2 |
|
|
|
|
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|
|
Larsson, Finale.
Exp.
A. B.
|
Solo |
|
1Sa |
|
1Sb |
|
2Sa |
(2T) |
2Sb |
|
Tutti |
1T |
|
1T |
|
2T |
|
2T |
|
|
Key |
G |
|
|
G-D |
G |
|
D |
|
|
Bar |
1 |
4 |
12 |
15 |
26 |
30 |
36 |
39 |
Dev.
A. B.
|
Solo |
|
2Sc |
|
(1Sb) |
|
(1Sb) |
|
|
|
Tutti |
2T |
|
(1S2T) |
|
(1S2T) |
|
|
(2T) |
|
Key |
G |
|
Gm |
|
A |
|
B |
D |
|
Bar |
43 |
47 |
51 |
54 |
57 |
59 |
62 |
73 |
Recap.
A. B.
|
Solo |
|
1Sa |
|
1Sb |
|
2Sa |
(2T) |
2Sb |
|
Tutti |
|
|
1T |
|
2T |
|
2T |
|
|
Key |
F |
D |
|
G-D |
G |
|
D |
|
|
Bar |
80 |
94 |
102 |
105 |
116 |
120 |
126 |
129 |
Coda
|
Solo |
|
2Sc |
|
CAD. |
|
(1S) |
|
|
|
Tutti |
2T |
|
1T |
|
1T |
|
|
|
|
Key |
G |
|
|
|
|
|
(1S) |
|
|
Bar |
133 |
137 |
141 |
149 |
150 |
153 |
157 |
|
In Bach, the Italian model is blurred by a lesser distinction between tutti and solo sections, the use of the same thematic material in solo and tutti and an overall extended variation in the texture of the accompaniment. Even so, the driving rhythm, the melodic contours, the outlines of the outer part and the predictable modulation scheme amplify the Italian influences in this movement, as clearly as those elements appear in Larsson's finale.
Bach�s second movement, in the relative minor, has also the design of ABA, but the return of the A is slightly modified and emerges out of the preceding B section, which partly uses and develops the same thematic material as the A section. The movement is framed by a tutti statement of the theme. By that, the two movements (I and II of Bach) are unified by the similarities in the overall form, but in the second movement the development (of the A material in the B section) is less apparent and the return of the A section can not be defined as a dacapo, due to the modified repeat.
Similarly, the same feature applies to the second movement of Larsson. He employs the structure of ABA. The B section partly develops motivic material from the A section and the returning A section is modified by changed roles between soloist and accompaniment. Even the similarities between the Bach first and second movement apply to Larsson as well. As a contrast to from Larsson's second movement, Bach's second movement makes clear distinction between thematic material in the orchestra and in the solo part. The soloist never states the thematic idea and only deals with a continuous figuration above the orchestra, which carries on the thematic material throughout. In this respect, this movement is closer to Striking similarities exist between Vivaldi�s and Bach�s themes through the use of sequential structure and rhythmical patterns that are used. In contrast to Vivaldi, Bach makes use of the thematic idea as accompaniment material during the solo episode. In this way Bach illustrates more of a chamber music style by having the soloist appear in dialogue and contrapuntal texture with the continuo (bars 31-35, 42-45) alternating with a section where the entire tutti is played against the soloist. Common to Vivaldi and his contemporaries was the use of a simple solo line for the middle movement, a line to be decorated by improvised embellishment. In Bach this simple line stands as a point of departure for the figurative embellishment, which Bach decided to write out and which therefore, appears in the score as the solo part.
Larsson, being "the man of the middle course" (according to the unique Swedish philosophy, described earlier), carefully balances his way between Bach and Vivaldi. Larsson's movement is, according to Vivaldi, illustration of chamber music by the use of conversational texture. Particularly significant is the canonical writing in the A section. Lacking is the characteristic opening and concluding tutti. Larsson has instead adopted the thinner opening texture of Bach. That resembles however the opening of the Vivaldi movement. In the style of Bach, Larsson has also maintained the full orchestration for the major part of the movement. Concerning the embellishment of the solo part in the returning A section, Larsson, is in contrast to both the common practice of improvisation and Bach's written out embellishment. The embellishment of the solo line is here substituted by a elaborate accompaniment, prior to the soloist and orchestra change roles.
In Bach's finale, the Vivaldian expectation of ending with a dance movement is fulfilled by a gigue. In Larsson, only the second tutti theme in triple meter, has a convincing dance like character. Bach has clear divisions between solo and tutti section, all in eight bar units, except for the final solo episode which is extended to sixteen bars. The thematic material in the solo and the tutti is also, similar to Vivaldi, of a different nature. In contrast to Vivaldi, all ritornellos appear in their full length and in the tonic, which make it possible to define this movement to be more a rondo, than a ritornello movement of Vivaldi's design. Even in this regard does Larsson appear as a middle course between Bach and Vivaldi: 1) Larsson provides a clear division between the solo and tutti section, but of various length, with the solo episodes extensively longer than the tutti sections. 2) The concept of differentiated material between solo and tutti applies, as discussed above, to a certain degree. 3) Finally, and as previously determined, the movement can not be classified as pure ritornello, nor a rondo.
Harmonically, Bach's only harmonic changes involve the modulation to c# minor for the second solo episode, and in the final solo episode the progression of A major, c# minor, f# minor and g# minor harmonically resemble the B section of the first movement. The solo episodes progress in virtuosity through episode and thereby creates a climax towards the end together with the more elaborate key scheme and the extension in length.
Similarly, a very simple key scheme is found in Larsson. This alternates between D and G, except for a more remote modulation in the development. Virtuosity is already present in the first solo episode of Larsson. Instead, the extension in length of each preceding episode, becomes the element of progression from one episode to the next. Each episode creates a goal directed progression through the means of allowing each subsequent solo episode to enter on a higher pitch; in other words, D in bar 4, F in bar 15 and G in 32 (G in bar 47). Each entire episode also focus around gradually reaching a higher register. Even the development progresses through an ascension through the range.
Characteristic of and unifying to the whole Bach concerto is the use of sequences. The rhythmical division is unified by the use of only eighth- and sixteenth notes (except for figurative passages in the second movement and in the final solo episode of the last movement, which both extend the basic rhythmical element by subdivision into thirty-second notes). Completely abandoned, with a few rare exceptions, is the use of dotted rhythms. Apparently Bach did not adopt to Vivaldi�s frequent use of lombardic rhythms in this composition. On the other hand, Vivaldi�s characteristic use of syncopation[11] as found, for example, in his Concerto grosso in G minor Op.3, No.2: Allegro (second movement), appears in the B section of the first movement. Even though, Bach�s syncopation does not, in contrast to Vivaldi, become one of the main characteristics for the movement, it creates in terms of texture the same contrast towards the repetitive sixteenth notes.
Concerning the same elements and summarizing the Larsson concerto, one can determine a level of neo-classicism set in contrast to this baroque model. Diversity of rhythmical pattern is found in both movements. Even though, as with Vivaldi, both lombardic rhythms (in the first movement, closing theme) and instances of syncopations (in the finale) are present. Combined rhythms in the first and second movement, illustrate a more classical approach to rhythmical variety. Larsson's concerto, however, stands in close relation to Bach in the use of sequences, especially the finale and in the developments of the two preceding movements.
Furthermore, a unifying and characteristic element for Bach (compare first movement of the Brandenburg Concerto No.1) is the systematic modulation scheme found in the first and third movement. Bach modulates only to scale degrees that are members of the tonic scale of the piece (i.e. in E major: c# minor, f# minor, g# minor and A major). In Vivaldi such systematic modulation through almost all of the scale degrees is not likely to be found to the same extent. Viewing the Bach concerto with the Vivaldi model as background, the characteristic of this model becomes more clear as the piece progresses. This is examplified by larger differences between solo and tutti material in the second and third movement than in the first movement, and by a more clear distinction between solo and tutti section in the third movement than in the first movement. Thematically, the triadic opening theme and the repetitive sixteenth notes in the first movement are both elements that must be determined as influences of Vivaldi and the Italian concerto tradition. Bach's transcriptions of Italian concertos during his time in Weimar (1708-1717) contributed Italian element to his own compositions as seen in this Violin Concerto in E major. The same influences can be seen throughout his career. The Six Brandenburg Concertos completed during his time in Cäthen (1717-1723) show a variety of concertante textures and manipulation of the Concerto grosso genre. In Leipzig (1723-1750) Bach again referred to his Italian model in Clavier-�bung, part II "Concerto in Italian style", where the harpsichord by alternating texture illustrates and resembles the ritornello form, generated from Vivaldi and his contemporaries.
Larsson's concerto, which overall is classified as a neo-classical composition, contains, as discussed, baroque elements, especially in the finale. Not surprisingly does Larsson's Sinfonietta (1932), preceding the Saxophone concerto, contain influences from the baroque era as well.
Along with Larsson's use of standard forms and practices and his modification thereof, other offspring of the same style appeared already in the next generation of the Bach family. Establishing a new solo instrument for the concerto genre, C.P.E. Bach (1714-1788) contributed a major part of his repertoire to the keyboard. One of the main features in his compositions was the empfindsamer stil. The source of this style was developed among poets in northern Europe, through their efforts to connect music and literature. Especially influential were those poets of the Sturm and Drang genre. The empfindsamer style�s basic goal is to illustrate the natural pattern of speech. Fantasy like compositions with sudden remote modulations, major shifts in terms of mode and tempo are all significant elements of this style. The developmental sections of the first and second movement of Larsson's concerto have their early predecessors within this style, using improvisatory elements, such as runs and arpeggiations.
C.P.E Bach�s keyboard works remain normally in three movements, Fast-Slow-Fast. Slow movements are usually through composed, while the outer movements falls into binary form with recapitulation, foreshadowing sonata form. An example of such concerto is Op. Wq. 43, a collection of six concertos for harpsichord, strings, two horns and two flutes, composed in Hamburg 1771-1772[12]. A first glance at the Keyboard concerto in D major Wq. 43/2, gives a fairly normal concerto form based on the Vivaldi model.
The concerto is in three movements, all in ritornello form. The first movement has four tutti, the second has three and the finale has five tutti. The second movement falls into binary form, while the third has the structure of a Concerto Sonata-Rondo form with repeated exposition as in a typical first movement of a symphony. The concerto follows, in various ways, Quantz�s definition concerning major features of a typical concerto with one concertante instrument[13]:
1) The outer movements are in the same key; D major, while the middle movement is presented in the contrasting key, E minor.
2) The andante ( 2nd mov.) is also distinguished from the first movement by the contrast in meter. The first movement is mainly in 3/4 with two andante sections in 2/4, while the second movement is in common time. However, the rhythmic structure of the tutti section resembles the first movement in terms of syncopation.
3) The finale differs from the first by being in 3/8 with dotted rhythms, which gives it a jocular character. While the opening allegro represents a more noble style with its syncopated rhythms.
4)All three movements start on different pitch levels. The upper part (violin 1) starts on the tonic (D) in the first movement, on the third (G) in the second movement and finally on the fifth (A) in the finale.
Several of these conditions apply to the Larsson concerto. Even though his two outer movements cannot be determined as being exclusively in the same key, the keys of D and G featured in the finale are, undoubtedly, significant key areas in the opening movement. As defined by Quantz's definition, the middle movement is presented in a contrasting key, F and the second movement differs from the first in terms of meter. The finale, with meter changes within the movement, stand in contrast to the slow alla breve meter of the first movement. Considering the harmonic ambiguity in the opening of the first movement and the fact that the first phrase of the second movement is in Bb major, even the Quantz's final condition (4) applies to all three movements; D (second in C minor) in the first movement, F (fifth in Bb) in the second movement, and D (tonic in D) in the finale.
In the first movement of the Keyboard concerto in D major Wq. 43/, the tradition of Torelli and Vivaldi is clear. Only the first and last ritornello appear in the tonic, and are separated by a complete difference in character between the solo and tutti material. The influence of empfindsamer style is prominent in the two andante sections in the first and third solo section. Those two andante sections also create an arch shape over the entire movement. The same is true for the short incipit of thematic material in the accompaniment and in the first and third solo episodes. The second solo episode becomes similar to the development in sonata form, due to a more elaborate harmonic progression. This movement stands in closer relation to the structure of Larsson�s finale, than the ritornello movements which have been discussed earlier.
The second movement is as in the Vivaldi practice, described above, surrounded by tuttis in the tonic, while the solo part is simply a solo aria in binary form. The solo episode (the aria) is stated twice; once in E major and once in G major. Other than the use of an aria in the solo part, associations with the second movement of Larsson are not applicable. However, Larsson�s manner of ending the second movement with an unresolved modulation, preparing for the change of key to the finale, undoubtedly finds a predecessor in this movement with its modulation to D major in the coda.
The Allegretto has the form of a Concerto Sonata-Rondo with a double bar and repeat sign for both the exposition and the development-recapitulation. Because of the repeat of the exposition, it appears as an early model of the so called double exposition, commonly used in Mozart�s first movement concerto form, and which is applied with modification by Larsson in the first movement of his concerto. In C.P.E. Bach, the soloist enters unexpectedly with transitional material rather than a real theme and brings the movement to the dominant. This relates, as discussed in the analysis of Larsson�s concerto in chapter III of this document, to the concept of presenting the solo and tutti statement of the theme in different keys.
C.P.E.Bach, Keyboard Concerto in D major, Wq. 43/2, first movement.
T1 S1 T2 S2
|
Solo |
|
Intro., S1 |
|
S2 |
|
Tutti |
Ta Tb |
Ta |
Ta |
Ta |
|
Key |
I |
I |
V |
V |
T3 S3 T4
|
Solo |
|
|
Intro,S1' |
Cadenza |
|
|
Tutti |
Tb |
Ta' Tb' |
Ta |
|
Ta Tb |
|
key |
IV |
IV |
I |
|
I |
A progressive version of double exposition is found in C.P.E. Bach�s Double Keyboard Concerto in Eb, Wq. 47. There is a short but significant modulation to the dominant in a flute passage before the soloists enter with the opening motive in the tonic. It appears as if the soloists enter with the transition, but the first actual solo episode does not begin until bar 50, in the dominant. Hereby an early model for Larsson� first movement exposition can be found. With a reversed order of soloist and tutti statement in the Larsson, the analogy is already clear by the tutti's appearance of the theme at bar 10, before the actual tutti statement begins at bar 18.
The standardization of a double exposition in concerto movements following the sonata form can be verified by other composers as well. By examining the first movement of Carl Stamitz's (1746-1801) Violoncello Concerto in A major no. 2, one will find that the three tutti and two solo episodes are shaped into sonata form with a double exposition. As in C.P.E. Bach's Double Keyboard Concerto Wq. 47, the tutti moves to the dominant (secondary theme) and back before the soloist enters. The soloist restates the primary theme and has a secondary theme that relates back to the secondary theme in the tutti. The second tutti functions as the closing to the exposition. The second solo episode, starting in the dominant, becomes the development. Going through an E minor treating of the primary theme. This solo episode ends by restating the secondary theme in the tonic and thereby introduces the recapitulation. The final tutti uses the closing theme and is interrupted by the cadenza. In that way the ritornello form, established for the concerto genre along the Italian tradition, has been integrated with the sonata form. A new standard form for opening movements started to emerged, and remained as a significant element in concerto writing, especially for Larsson in 1934.
Larsson's adoption to the Italian model, as compared to J.S. Bach's modification of the same, was determined to be in certain aspects more conservative than Bach. As the man of the middle way, Larsson created a good blend of progressivism and conservatism by integrating traditional elements into his own harmonic language.
Classical Influences.
As in Mozart one can characterize the music to be "cantabile allegro"(first movement of the Saxophone Concerto), with spots of elegiac-lyrical nuances. It is primarily the soloist who represent the cantabile elements. It curls its runs around a ensemble of strings, which is almost invisible, but still sonorous.[14]
The above statement requires a closer examination and a more detailed exemplification.
W. A. Mozart's (1756-1791) contribution to and development of the solo concerto repertoire features a sharing of themes between tutti and solo, more intense dialogue between the two, sections where soloist and orchestra overlap each other at entrance points and a repeat of sections where they trade roles as accompaniment and soloist. There is also a more refined use of the orchestra, dividing it into groups of solo and accompaniment, an element, which has its origin in the sinfonia concertante genre. An example of this is illustrated in J.S. Bach�s Sinfonia Concertante in C for 4 instruments. In contrast to Vivaldi, Mozart�s solo episodes are more thematic and share the main ideas of the piece with the orchestra. Mozart also standardizes, as did Carl Stamitz, the Sonata Concerto Form in the first movement. This form features a double exposition. The second tutti becomes the closing of the exposition and the third tutti functions as a re-transition to the recapitulation. The opening movement of Larsson's concerto stands in close relation to such classical features.
A strophe of Hjalmar Gullberg's poem Färkl�dd gud(God in disguise), which was the text for Larsson's cantata of the same title, is a poetic description, more than anything else, of the way in which Larsson preferred to compose.
Vem spelar p� en pipa
en l�t av gryningsluft
fär himmelsk att begripa,
häjd äver allt färst�nd?
(Who is playing on a flute
a song of aurora
too celestial to be understood,
beyond all comprehensive thoughts?)
"Light and soaring, never dragging, not unclear. It should take of, fly above the ground, like the music by Mozart."
People have compared me with Mozart, and I hope that is the case - that I have managed to reach the clarity of his music, this lightness, if not comprehension.
Many are those who desperately try to find "new" forms, make it as complicated as possible. Through the years I have learned one thing; it is a simple task to write something complicated, but very hard to compose something simple.[15]
As the development of any form of art or genre within an specific art form, the development of features in the concerto genre is not isolated from the progression in other genres. One of the most striking influences on the concerto genre appears to be the features of the opera. In the first movement of Mozart's Piano Concerto in C major, K.503 the general features of the concerto form, described above, are combined with influences from Opera Buffa, in several ways:
1) Contrasting character roles which become unified in the finale (compare with; different themes return in the recapitulation in the same key).
2) A rhetorical climax is built up through the drama which resolves closer to the end rather than resolving at the middle portion of the plot (compare with; the development becomes more and more intense towards the end by using shorter and shorter phrases, and the recapitulation is almost half the length of the exposition).
3) The transition always appears in a modified form gives the movement a drive forward, which also has its roots in the opera plot.
At least the second of the above conditions applies to the first movement of Larsson's concerto. The development does increase towards the end in various ways:
1) After the first section of the development, measures 108-130 with soloist and accompaniment thematically separated, a contrapuntal dialogue takes its point of departure at bar 130.
2) From measures 139-144 an actual duet takes place between the soloist and the viola.
3) the use of stretto in the accompaniment, measures 146-150 and the ascending line of the solo part resolve into the most dramatic part of the development (156-), signaled by a characteristic trill.
4) By intensified strettos, the last and the most intense section, measures 156-175 of the development, reaches its climax at measures 166 through 173,
The third condition, concerning the transitions, applies to the transition in the recapitulation, which is twisted towards the end and therefore modulates to another key than in the exposition.
Mozart�s attraction to the opera world is obvious even in the second movement. The movement takes the form of a dacapo aria. However, the harmonic progression, I-V-I, might suggest a binary form, which together with the theme scheme falls into an exposition-recapitulation form. The recapitulation, though, is not an exact repeat of the exposition, and therefore resembles the way in which the opera aria normally was performed. In the same way does the second movement of Larsson's concerto resemble the Dacapo Aria.
In the third movement of Mozart's Piano Concerto a more mature integration appears between the ritornello form and the sonata form - previously discussed in the finale of C.P.E. Bach's Keyboard concerto in D major Wq. 43/2. This finale,therefore is closer related to Larsson's finale. However, all of Mozart�s ritornellos are stated in the tonic, which results in a Concerto-sonata-rondo form, A B A� C A B A�. The solo part moves to the dominant in the first episode, modulates to the relative minor and the subdominant in the second episode and finally returns to the tonic in the recapitulation. The orchestra supports the solo episodes by quoting its material; supporting the second theme during the outer episodes and the new material during the development. Both soloist and orchestra participate in the third and the final tutti. Hence, the movement has both the structure of the ritornello concerto form and the sonata form, which creates a 7-part rondo with exposition, development and recapitulation. The only elaboration of this format in Larsson's finale is his use of two different ritornello themes and their appearance in different keys.
If Larsson had a specific concerto in mind as a model, it was likely Mozart's Clarinet Concerto in A major, KV. 622. This concerto is an excellent example of gallant style, with short phrases, light and varied texture, use of concertante style, simple harmony and variety in rhythmical figuration. The same summary applies to the Larsson concerto with exception of a partly more complex tonality.
As a standard feature of Mozart's concertos, the opening movement follows the First-movement-sonata-form with a double exposition. Both the form of the opening movement, the following Adagio in ABA and the rondo in the finale are all structures adopted by Larsson. Comparing the proportions between the exposition, development, recapitulation and coda in the first movements of Mozart's to Larsson's concerto, Mozart maintained the standard form of his concertos, with the recapitulation reduced to half of the length of the exposition. Larsson, on the other hand, has decreased the difference in length between the exposition and the recapitulation. The total proportion of developmental material is exactly the same for both composers when the proportions of the development and the coda are added.
Exposition Development Recapitulation Coda
Mozart 48% 21% 20% 11%
Larsson 39% 25% 29% 7%
For both composers the solo part is characterized by the use of a wide range and extensive leaps. These features are prominent in the first and second movements and especially in the developments. In so doing, Mozart exploited the clarinet's valuable capacity in range and tone color, thereby providing the solo part with a dialogue within itself. An example of this appears already in the exposition, bar 65, while the violins are imitating the closing material underneath. This idea of a dialogue within the solo part is adopted by Larsson, especially in the cadenza of the first movement.
Other means of expression in Mozart are expressed the ways energy is built up through intensive runs in the solo part, an element significant in Larsson as well. Additionally, tremolo, intense syncopated notes and syncopated accompaniment, all which resembles Sturm und Drang influences, appears in Mozart (bars 154-161 closing of exposition and bars 227-249 at the end of development), for the same purpose. The equivalence of the same means of expression (syncopations) is featured in the second half of Larsson's development (measures 150-173, first movement). Overall, the developments in Larsson and in Mozart are basically extended dialogues between the soloist and the accompaniment. As is often found in Mozart, the development in the Clarinet Concerto is fairly short. The proportions have been adopted by Larsson.
In other instances Mozart can appear less predicable in terms of strict treatment of the sonata from. In the first movement of Mozart's Violin Concerto no,4, in D major, K.218 (1775) the first phrase of the primary theme does not return in the recapitulation and the primary is not at all treated in the development. This can be explained by the fact that Mozart had a concerto by Boccherini (D major) as a model. According to Friederich Blume, Mozart came in contact with Boccherini through Baron de Bagge and therefore the Mozartean writing is clothed in the garment of a strange model[16]. Scholars agree that a strict (theoretically) definition of sonata form is not to be found with the same consistency in the 18th century, as it has been used by as a model by contemporary composers. Larsson�s strict use of the form in the first movement with main themes treated in the development followed by a complete recapitulation, which restates all material earlier heard in the exposition, can therefore be interpreted more as a theoretical product, lacking spontaneity in terms of form. It reveals a too strong respect for the tradition, for the theoretically background earned through studies at the Academy. Paradoxically, Hindemith, who had inspired Larsson with his own application of neo-classical elements, expressed as early as 1917 his opposition against too strict boundaries.
I want to write music, not song forms and sonata forms....I can not talk seriously with any one because none of them [ conservatory teachers] has any ideals left. Their whole art has become far too much craft.[17]
Larsson's use of Alberti accompaniment can not be mistaken for anything but being influenced by the Mozart ideal. For each movement, Larsson has even captured the same atmosphere as found in Mozart. The opening movements both display dignity and correctness through a maestoso like character, with well-refined themes over a light and clear accompaniment. The slow movements are both designed with a lyrical theme surrounding a more virtuous B section full of embroidered embellishments, recalling fantasy influences from. C.P.E. Bach's Empfindsamer style. As expected in a Scandinavian composer, Larsson's second movement reflects melancholic color. In Mozart the same character gives the second movement a deeply expressive quality, which probably reflects Mozart's emotional state during the next to last month of his life and some weeks after an unsuccessful performance of La Clemenza di Tito in Prague. Both concertos are brought to a close by joyful finales, exclaiming triumph and relief.
Mozart, clarinet Concerto in A major KV 622, first movement:
EXP.T1 S1
|
Solo |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
PaPb |
|
Tut. |
PaPb |
PaPb |
2P |
T |
Pa' |
T(P) |
K |
2K |
2Kb |
|
|
Key |
I |
|
|
I-V |
I |
I-IV |
|
I |
|
|
|
Bar |
1 |
8 |
16 |
20 |
25 |
31 |
37 |
49 |
54 |
57 |
|
Solo |
|
|
|
2Ta |
2Tb |
2Tc |
S |
|
2T ' |
Pa' |
|
Tut. |
K |
P' |
2Kb |
|
|
|
|
T |
|
|
|
Key |
I |
|
|
i |
|
|
V |
|
|
|
|
Bar |
64 |
65 |
73 |
78 |
86 |
95 |
100 |
108 |
116 |
128 |
DEV.
|
Solo |
|
|
|
|
|
|
P' |
N |
2Tb |
N' |
|
Tut. |
K |
3K |
3T |
2P |
T |
2K |
P' |
N |
|
|
|
Key |
V |
|
|
|
|
|
|
(vi) |
IV |
|
|
Bar |
134 |
138 |
143 |
154 |
158 |
164 |
173 |
180 |
200 |
210 |
RECAP. CODA
|
Solo |
2N |
2P |
T |
P |
|
2Ta |
2Tc |
S' |
P' |
|
|
Tut. |
|
|
|
|
K |
|
|
|
|
K |
|
Key |
|
|
IV-I |
I |
|
i |
|
V |
i |
|
|
Bar |
229 |
239 |
244 |
251 |
258 |
272 |
284 |
288 |
316 |
322 |
Larsson first movement:
Exposition
|
Solo |
P |
2P |
- |
T(2P) |
|
T |
S |
2S |
- |
|
Tutti |
|
p |
P |
|
T(2P) |
|
|
S |
K |
|
Key |
Dm-Cm |
|
Gm-Cm |
|
|
D |
Gm |
|
D |
|
Bar |
1 |
10 |
18 |
26 |
34 |
38 |
48 |
64 |
80 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Solo |
- |
K |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Tutti |
2K |
|
2K |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Key |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bar |
88 |
94 |
102 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Development
|
Solo |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Tutti |
|
(S) |
(S,P) |
(P) |
(2K) |
(K,P) |
|
Key |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bar |
108 |
110 |
124 |
130 |
146 |
166 |
Recapitulation
|
Solo |
|
T(2P) |
|
T |
S |
2S |
- |
- |
Cad. |
|
Tutti |
P |
|
T(2P) |
|
|
S |
K |
2K |
|
|
Key |
Gm-Cm |
|
|
(A7) |
Dm |
|
A |
|
|
|
Bar |
176 |
184 |
192 |
196 |
206 |
220 |
238 |
246 |
255 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Coda |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Solo |
K |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Tutti |
|
2K |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Key |
|
|
G |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bar |
256 |
264 |
269 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
By spotlighting the clarinet, a modern instrument at the time, Mozart designed a model for woodwind solo repertoire. Nineteenth-century composers such, as C.M. von Weber and J. Brahms, continued this genre by dedicating masterpieces to the clarinet. The Saxophone Concerto by Larsson is just one composition among others that is based upon the format which Mozart established. The unique quality and beauty with which Mozart introduced the solo part as well as the texture has maintained itself as model throughout centuries, and is still influencing and providing inspiration to composers, performers, and audience.
Composers such as Larsson who did not follow the contemporary trends of development, but instead resembled older styles and practices rather than creating new have existed in each period of the history. During the nineteenth century, when romanticism was approaching its high peak, Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) appeared similar to Larsson in the twentieth century, by utilizing neo-classical features.
As with Larsson, Brahms' style of writing was integrated with features and influences of his own time. Because of the Hungarian uprising in the summer 1848, suppressed by the Austrians and the Russians, a stream of insurgents passed through Hamburg on their flight to North America. Thus, Brahms, who was born in Hamburg and by that time 14 years old, came in contact with the c�rd�s and the zingarese. Characteristic features of those styles such as irregular rhythms and triplet figuration became significant in his late style.
The Violin Concerto in D major, op.77 was written in Pärtschach in 1878 in the spirit of the second symphony of the same key. It was premiered in Leipzig on the 1st of January, 1879, with Joseph Joachim as soloist, to whom it was dedicated. Prior to the performance, Brahms had reduced the four movement work to three movements. The two middle movements, adagio and scherzo, had been cut and replaced with a new adagio. The scherzo later became the scherzo of the second Piano Concerto in Bb major (1878-81). The Violin Concerto ends with a finale of Hungarian touch, in honor to Joseph Joachim's origin[18].
Influenced by the past, Brahms provided a three movement work, in conventional form such as sonata concerto, ternary ABA, and a rondo in the finale. The second movement, in F major with the middle section in the contrasting key of F# minor, has more the character of a fantasia because the primary theme is only stated once in its original appearance. This opening presentation is contributed by the oboe, after which the violin enters with an elaborate embellishment of the same there. The movement's thematic presentation resembles J.S. Bach's second movement of the Violin Concerto in E Major BWV 1042, where the main theme never appears in its original version in the soloist. By so doing, Brahms departs from classical practice. In various ways even the finale contains features not particular common for the classic period. The Hungarian idiom becomes the point of departure for the finale, with dotted rhythms and sfortzatos on weak beats occurring throughout. There is also a sense of thematic transformation, in the way in which themes borrow rhythms and characteristic intervals from each other. For example: 1) the first and second themes both have an ascending second of the end of each bar, 2) the extensive coda uses the primary theme, but with the sixteenth notes smoothed to triplets, set in a higher tempo. This application of transformational procedures implies that Brahms was working with tools similar to his contemporary, Franz Liszt. Such an integration of the romantic idiom into the classical model has been pointed out in Larsson's Concerto. The application of such elements will be discussed further, under "Thematic Metamorphosis.
According to Tovey, Bronislaw Huberman - a Polish violinist (1882-1947) who in 1886 performed Brahms� violin concerto in the presence of the composer[19], summarizes the violin concerto by correcting a famous epigram of B�low's ( B�low was the intendant in Meiningen and provided Brahms with the Meiningen orchestra as a rehearsal orchestra11 ). B�low said that Max Bruch had written a concerto for the violin and Brahms a concerto against the violin. Huberman corrects this by saying that " Brahms concerto is neither against the violin, nor for the violin with orchestra; but it is a concerto for violin against orchestra - and the violin wins[20]." If Huberman ever had had an opportunity to listen to Larsson's Saxophone Concerto, he may have also stated that Larsson wrote a neo-classical Saxophone Concerto for the saxophonist and against those musicians who do not believe that the saxophone is suitable for classical music - and the saxophonist wins.
Huberman's statement about Brahms' Violin Concerto is actually a description that is of significant importance. From the first solo episode and on, the soloist is ahead of the orchestra in terms of highlighting the themes; the soloist introduces the 2S at 206, 2Kab at 246, 1k at 304, N at 340, Pa at 361, 2S at 445, 2Kab at 487, and these presentations are all followed by a answer in the orchestra. The same structure is found in the first movement of Larsson's concerto, where the saxophone presents all the thematic material (except for closing theme), followed by a tutti statement.
The soloist in the Brahms Concerto takes up the major portion of the movement. In terms of presenting the themes, the division is fairly equal between the soloist and orchestra, but the soloist has continuous figurations throughout all three solo episodes. Only one exception is made in the development. After presenting the new material, the soloist gives way to the orchestra�s answer, as if this high peak of the movement exhausted the soloist. Whether or not this opportunity for rest was applied upon recommendation from Joachim must remain speculative. In the Larsson concerto, each instance where the altissimo register has been used in the first and last movements is followed by rest for the soloist. This suggests that Rascher's insistence on using the altissimo register also included recommendations concerning necessary pauses for the soloist�s embouchure. Significantly there a is the lack of such an application in the second movement, where the use of the altissimo register is immediately followed with lyrical lines, deleting any opportunity of rest for the soloist. This suspiciously provides indications that the second movement was not originally intended for the saxophone concerto.
Larsson borrowed the overall form and harmonic framework from Mozart. Larsson integrated into this model a strident harmonic and tonal language as with Brahms' use of more remote modulations, and he was influenced by his contemporaries, such as Hindemith and Berg. Still, Larsson's refined balance between tradition and progressive elements resulted in a work maintaining the weightless characteristics of the gallant style and featured flowing lyricism. The Swedish music critic Leif Aare describes Larsson as the "Mozart of Sweden", by referring to Larsson's light and airy textures, a character which stand in contrast to his gastronomic tastes. Larsson's close friend and contemporary colleague, Gunnar de Frumerie recalled a delicious lunch � la Larsson, which means a menu according to sk�nsk tradition. Sk�nsk" stands for the province Sk�ne, where Larsson was born and grew up. Traditionally, a true meal composed by a sk�nsk chef, consists of a row of heavy and very filling dishes made out of potato, sausage, beans and so forth. De Frumerie said that for his own part, the excellent meal resulted in a Chaconne, which remains one of the most heavy and monumental forms. Larsson, on the contrary, transformed the nourishment into one of his lyrical and playfully weightless compositions. In other words, even after eating Sk�nsk Kalops (spiced beef stew), Larsson is still a tremendous lyrical composer.[21]
Johannes Brahms, Violin Concerto in D major, op.77.
First movement:
EXP. T1 S1
|
Solo |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Intr |
(Pa) |
|
|
Tut. |
Pa |
Pb |
T |
Pa |
Sa |
Sb |
1K |
2Kab |
ton. |
ped. |
|
|
Key |
D |
G |
|
D |
|
|
|
d |
|
D |
V/D |
|
Bar |
1 |
9 |
17 |
27 |
41 |
61 |
69 |
78 |
90 |
120 |
128 |
|
Solo |
Pa |
|
|
|
|
|
Sb2S |
|
ped. |
2Kab |
|
|
Tut. |
|
Pb |
|
T |
Sa |
Sb |
|
2S |
1K |
|
2Kb |
|
Key |
D |
G |
D |
a |
A |
|
|
|
a |
|
|
|
Bar |
136 |
152 |
156 |
164 |
178 |
198 |
206 |
214 |
236 |
246 |
260 |
DEV. T2 S2 REC T3 S3
|
Solo |
|
|
1K |
N |
|
|
Pa2K |
|
Pb |
|
|
|
Tut. |
Pa2K |
2S1K |
|
1K |
N |
T |
ped. |
Pa |
Pb |
T |
Sa |
|
Key |
a |
|
c |
|
|
A |
V/D |
D |
C |
A |
D |
|
Bar |
272 |
292 |
304 |
312 |
340 |
347 |
361 |
381 |
393 |
405 |
419 |
CODA.
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Solo |
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2S |
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ped. |
2Kab |
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Cad. |
Pa |
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Tut. |
Sb |
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2S |
1K |
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2Kb |
Pa |
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Key |
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F# |
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d |
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Bb |
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D |
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Bar |
437 |
445 |
453 |
479 |
487 |
501 |
513 |
526 |
527 |
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W.A. Mozart, Violin Concerto in D major, K 218.
First movement:
EXP. T1 S1 DEVT2
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Solo |
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Int. |
P' |
T |
S' |
K(S) |
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Tut. |
Int. |
P |
S |
K |
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Int. |
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Key |
D |
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A |
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Bar |
1 |
5 |
20 |
31 |
42 |
46 |
60 |
87 |
95 |
109 |
S2 Rec T3 S3 CODA T4
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Solo |
N(S) |
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P' |
S |
k |
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Cad. |
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Tut. |
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P |
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P' |
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Int' |
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Key |
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b |
G |
D |
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Bar |
115 |
121 |
137 |
153 |
155 |
181 |
189 |
208 |
212 |
213 |
Larsson, first movement:
Exposition
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Solo |
P |
2P |
- |
T(2P) |
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T |
S |
2S |
- |
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Tutti |
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p |
P |
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T(2P) |
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S |
K |
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Key |
Dm-Cm |
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Gm-Cm |
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D |
Gm |
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D |
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Bar |
1 |
10 |
18 |
26 |
34 |
38 |
48 |
64 |
80 |
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Solo |
- |
K |
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Tutti |
2K |
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2K |
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Key |
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Bar |
88 |
94 |
102 |
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Development
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Solo |
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Tutti |
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(S) |
(S,P) |
(P) |
(2K) |
(K,P) |
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Key |
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Bar |
108 |
110 |
124 |
130 |
146 |
166 |
Recapitulation
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Solo |
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T(2P) |
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T |
S |
2S |
- |
- |
Cad. |
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Tutti |
P |
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T(2P) |
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S |
K |
2K |
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Key |
Gm-Cm |
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(A7) |
Dm |
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A |
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Bar |
176 |
184 |
192 |
196 |
206 |
220 |
238 |
246 |
255 |
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Coda |
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Solo |
K |
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Tutti |
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2K |
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Key |
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G |
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Bar |
256 |
264 |
269 |
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The Soloist.
Looking back in history, we can conclude that it takes a lot of time and effort to convince a skeptical world about the validity of new theories. This is also true for all kinds of art and their development. Unlike persuasive advertising, so common to contemporary society, which tries to manipulate and dictate our convictions and opinions, art has to depend on its own intrinsic value and honesty for survival. New genres of music have to be provided with good performers. New types of ensembles or instruments need music of good quality to establish their own audience. The establishment of the saxophone into the concert hall has not proceeded with extraordinary speed, but due to composers� contributions to the saxophone repertoire, such as the concerto studied in this paper, the instrument has been given a chance to express itself in a genre from which it has been long excluded. Analogies of this phenomenon are frequent.
What would Jazz have been without Charlie Parker - a man who contributed his whole life to the style of music that he created and believed in, a belief which left him buried in a pauper's grave at the age of thirty-five, forgotten by his contemporaries. Mozart dedicated some of his most magnificent pieces to the clarinet and provided a promising beginning of a new woodwind repertoire. He finished his Clarinet Concerto (KV 622) in November 1791[22], less than a month before he died at the age of thirty-five, poor and forgotten by his contemporaries.
The clarinet began to appear on a regular basis in Johann Stamitz's (1717 - 1757) Mannheim orchestra in 1777[23]. Stamitz also composed a concerto for clarinet and orchestra., written for the virtuoso Josef Beer whose performance so inspired Stamitz's younger brother that he wrote a concerto himself.[24] These concertos can be considered as the first works of the clarinet repertoire. There is no doubt that Mozart received his inspiration for the clarinet in Mannheim while he was there in 1777 - 78[25]. In Vienna, Mozart began to use the clarinet in his compositions and dedicated them to his friend Anton Stadler (1753 - 1812) (Examples include both the Clarinet Quintet (KV581) and the basset-clarinet obbligato in the aria "Parto, Parto" from La Clemenza di Tito). Larsson can hardly have been inspired by any other major saxophone concertos, since both the Glazonouv's Saxophone concerto and Ibert's Concertino Da camera were not yet in existence, or at least not premiered. As mentioned in the introduction of this document, Glazonouv's Concerto was premiered two days before the premiere of Larsson's concerto. According to Nicolas Slonimsky, the Glazonouv Concerto was written during the spring of 1934.
25 November 1934 Concerto for Saxophone op. 109, by the venerable classicist of the Russian National School Alexander Glazonouv, his last work, written in the spring of 1934, in E flat major, in a single movement articulated into three sections, an Allegro, an Andante with a florid cadenza, and a concise Fugato, is performed for the first time anywhere with a local orchestra in an old church in Nykäping, Sweden by the Danish saxophone virtuoso Sigurd Rascher, to whom the work is dedicated.[26]
Note that Rascher is now, in Music Since 1900, 5th ed. published 1994, identified by Slonimsky as a Danish saxophonist, after being identified as a German-American Saxophonist in Slonimsky�s 8th edition of the Baker�s Biographical Dictionary of Musicians.[27]
In a letter to Slonimsky, dated 29 December 1960, Rascher writes:
I met Glazounov in Paris early in 1934 and went to visit him at his home...Alors, jouez! he said. I played, soft, loud, cascades and ripples. Merveilleux! Glazonouv exclaimed. I timidly explored the idea of his composing a saxophone concerto for me. He looked benevolent, shook the ashes off his cigar and asked me to come again. When I saw him next, the Concerto was almost ready. For a whole wonderful afternoon, and late into the evening, we worked together on the score, changing a note here and there, and fixing the cadenza. Thanks to his patience I had the opportunity of receiving his instructions on every point in the Concerto. It was one of the greatest lessons I had ever had.[28]
With a similar inspired request from Sigurd Rascher, Larsson took the idea of composing a concerto for saxophone under consideration, while shaking the ashes from his pipe, with which he is frequently pictured with. Sigurd Rascher met Larsson at the ISCM conference in Florence, April 5, 1934, when Larsson's Sinfonietta was successfully performed in front of the international gathering of musicians and composers.[29] At midnight, after the performance of Larsson�s Sinfonietta, a group of people, including both Larsson and Rascher, went out to explore Florence by night. An article by the music critic Sten Broman depicts the night in Florence.
Most restaurants were just about to close down, but a few nightclubs were still crowded. While most of us enjoyed the taste of various Italian wines, Rascher restricted himself, as usual, to non-alcoholic juices, chewing on old and dry pieces of bread in order to exercise his embouchure. He got very upset if anyone happened to leave out the "M.", his middle initial, when addressing him. He was otherwise in a humorous mood, putting himself in the center of attention by frequently joking and laughing. No women had before heard a man play the saxophone the way he did.[30]
Not only did Rascher avoid alcohol, exercising his embouchure by chewing old bread, he was also a devoted vegetarian, who had the habit of drinking cowberries mixed with milk at every meal.[31] A unique and fanatic personality inspired Larsson to write a concerto. According to Bo Wallner, the saxophone concerto was then composed during the summer of 1934.[32] It seems relevant that Larsson began to work on the concerto soon after returning from the festival in Florence, April 1934. Even so, he procrastinated the completion of the concerto until the very last minute. Six weeks before the premiere, which was scheduled for November 27, Rascher had to call Larsson, reminding him that he had promised to have the piece completed before then.[33] The autograph of the score was signed by Larsson on November 16, 1934.[34]
Similarly, Mozart's Clarinet Concerto in A Major (KV622), probably written between 28 September and 15 November 1791[35], was composed through the inspiration of, and dedication to Stadler. Mozart mentions in a letter to his wife Constanze, dated 7 October 1791, that he has almost orchestrated the whole of "Stadler's Rondo"[36]. Since the autograph of the score is lost it is not known for sure if the Concerto was meant to be played on basset-clarinet (clarinet with four semitones extension) or a modern clarinet in A. In the existing version there are several examples of sequences that are naturally broken in relation to the orchestra and phrases that shift up a seventh in order to avoid an awkwardly low register (Ex. 1 mov. bar 332 - 3 and 190). A review in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (AmZ), Leipzig 1802, also talks about a concerto by Mozart for a clarinet going down to C[37]. However, the first movement is based on a basset horn movement, in G, which consisted of a 199 bar sketch (KV584b), probably written as early as 1787[38].
In the case of Larsson's concerto there is not much doubt about its original form or what kind of saxophone it was to be performed on. However, Rascher's suggestions and wishes concerning the use of the altissimo register on the alto saxophone apparently had a major influence on Larsson's composing of the concerto. On the other hand, the fact that Larsson was not a woodwind player is evident in the solo part. Viewing some of the passages in the development of both the first and second movement, it is apparent that the young Larsson was not completely aware of the need for frequent breaths when employing a wider range on a wind instrument. As an instrumentalist, Larsson had only professional expertise in the art of organ and piano playing. Larsson does not favor too complex means of composing or means of expressions, nor do his compositions in general demand virtuosity. The Saxophone Concerto therefore comes an exception. At the time of its premiere, Rascher was one of the few who could control the entire register, which the composition asks for. Even so, the critics were still not convinced about the saxophone�s role as a solo instrument in the concert hall.
Rascher, the Danish saxophone virtuoso is by all means a phenomenal artist with excellent sound and technique. Still, not even after his performance can the saxophone be considered a solo instrument. He performed two concertos which were composed for him. It would not have been a great loss if he kept the concerto by the Swedish composer Lars-Erik Larsson to himself. In the concerto one can of course trace some compositional talent and a few interesting details appeared, especially in the second movement. In general, however, the concerto was lacking good ideas and was quite inaffective. Neither was the other concerto a masterpiece, written by the Russian composer Glazonouv. But this piece was at least spiritual, festive and well suited for both soloist and orchestra. Rascher received in due course applause and flowers.[39]
Even fourteen months later, at a performance in Stockholm, conducted by Vaclav Talich, Rascher�s performance was criticized, not leaving the critics convinced about the saxophone�s potential as a solo instrument.
It is not the construction of the instrument that has brought the saxophone to be associated with a sentimental and whining sound. By Rascher�s demonstration it is proven that the saxophone can produce a round and beautiful sound in certain spots, especially in the adagio.
In addition, the concerto gave a full presentation of various kinds of vibrato, runs and transitions from the very smooth bass register to an extraordinary high descant, not particular pleasant to listen to, but technically somewhat impressive. The peculiar characteristics of the sound were a little tiring in the long run, but the audience seemed to find some amusement in the piece and gave Rascher enthusiastic applause.[40]
An early recording with Rascher and the Stockholm Radio Orchestra shows that Rascher also had some difficulties with intonation in the altissimo register, especially in the second movement. The extremely challenging phrase in the first movement, bar 118, is performed accurately. However, the tempo is slower than expected and the smoothness and gentle touch, which the music asks for, seem to be lacking in Rascher�s playing.[41]
Later recordings by other performers have continued to verify the difficulties of mastering this piece. Both saxophone players and reviewers have, with sadness, listened to the Finnish saxophonist Pekka Savijoki's unsuccessfull struggle with the altissimo register throughout the concerto. Knud Ketting pronounces Pekka Savijoki's failure in his review from 1985.
The Swedish composer Lars-Erik Larsson is still active, but he wrote his saxophone concerto as long ago as 1934 for the world famous virtuoso Sigurd Rascher. A few years ago he revised the solo part, which had turned out to be too difficult for almost all other players than Rascher himself - and it seems in places to be too difficult for Pekka Savijoki, who has chosen to perform the original version in this recording.[42]
The jacket notes by Per Skans, on the back of the recording itself, indicate similar criticism.
The saxophone concerto was composed for the famous soloist, Sigurd Rascher, and the music is influenced to a certain extent by the collaboration between composer and soloist. Rascher was a pioneering saxophone virtuoso and had introduced a number of highly personal tricks and devices; some of these were included in the concerto. Since these special effects were beyond the capacity of most other saxophonists the unfortunate result was that the concerto was performed rather rarely, a great pity in view of its general quality.
To make the concerto more accessible for soloists Lars-Erik Larsson wrote a simplified version at the beginning of the 1980�s. the present recording nevertheless features the original version and thus includes Rascher�s almost unplayable special effects.[43]
According to Knud Ketting, Larsson revised his concerto during the 1980s[44]. By examining the collection of Larsson�s autographs and manuscripts at the Kungliga Musikaliska Akademiens Bibliotek in Stockholm, the author can verify that a supplementary critical commentary exists in Larsson�s handwriting, suggesting that all sections originally written in the altissimo register can be performed an octave lower. The supplement is not dated and appears removed and separate from any score or parts. If these alternations were the original thoughts from the composer or came to his mind in later years is therefore impossible to determine. Obviously, however, is the fact that Larsson was not primarily concerned with the virtuoustic details and probably was influenced more by the criticism of the first performances. A more responsible recording, where the difficulties of the altissimo register have been taken into consideration, has been made by the Swedish saxophonist Christer Johnsson.[45] After Christer Johnsson's broadcast performance with the Radiosymfonikerna, Larsson enthusiastically called up the studio and congratulated the soloist, which again gives validity to the composer�s authorization for a performance without the altissimo register.[46]
With the respect Larsson strived to achieve in simplicity and classicism, the concerto has gained more respectful criticism. Subsequently, the saxophone has convincingly received acceptance as a solo instrument. During the Larsson-festival in 1988, the concerto was successfully performed by Christer Johnsson and the Stockholm Sinfonietta, conducted by Gäran W. Nilsson. Ulla-Britt Edberg gave the following report:
Lars-Erik Larsson�s Saxophone Concerto was commissioned by the well known Sigurd Rascher and premiered in 1934. Fifty-four years later, last Wednesday, the concerto was interpreted by the distinguished soloist Christer Johnsson. Through his performance emerged all the beauty and sober tone which the saxophone has inherent. Even through the virtuoso sections did he maintain the smoothness and perfection of sound. The second movement, consisting of long soaring phrases, faded out in a breathless calm. In the first movement it appeared as if the soloist competes with the orchestra, which incessantly and obtrusively forces through on its own.....The concert ended with the Sinfonietta which inspired the German saxophonist Sigurd Rascher to commission the Saxophone Concerto.[47]
Ulla-Britt Edberg's description of the first movement depicts the finale more than any other section. Following this striving for simplicity and beauty, the author has had numerous opportunities to perform the concerto, in Sweden and in the United States. After one of the author�s first performances with the chamber orchestra Musica Vitae in 1991, the critics not only accepted the saxophone as a solo instrument, but also praised the performance
....The divertimento was followed by Lars-Erik Larsson�s Konsert fär Saxofon och Str�korkester. With a refined sound, a vibrato which embellished his tone with the dimensions of the human voice, and of even more significance, with the talent for subtle nuances, Anders Lundeg�rd succeeded in seducing his audience. Especially the elegiac atmosphere and deep poetry of the second movement, brought tears to our eyes.[48]
Even though the ambiguities concerning Larsson's intentions are few in comparison to Mozart's Clarinet Concerto, it remains speculative if it was Larsson's intention to compose a concerto, which could only be performed by a small number of saxophonists. Larsson usually composed for a broad audience and for the average performer. The author has performed the original version in the altissimo register as well as the lower octave version. After a concert performance, performed in the altissimo register, at the Swedish Museum in Chicago, May 1994, the following review by Geoffrey Shaw Monmouth was given in The Sun - USA News[49] and in Nordstjernan, June 30, 1994.
Anders Lundeg�rd, guest artist saxophonist from V�xjä, Sweden, completed his undergraduate work at the Royal Academy of Music in Stockholm, and is now in residence, as a Fulbright Scholar, at Northwestern University where he is completing his Doctoral program. Opening the recital with the Concerto, Lundeg�rd, with Dennis Moffat at the piano, launched into the complexities of the first movement with great energy and �lan, making easy work of fast-moving polyphony and syncopation. The Brahms-like second movement Adagio revealed why Larsson can touch the man in the street. Richly harmonic, with a rise and fall of the most satisfying classic proportions, this movement also displayed Lundeg�rd in his best light, requiring indisputable command of dynamics and breath. An Allegro Scherzando finishes the Concerto in a mild and reflective manner avoiding all the tricks of comedy and clowning usually associated with the saxophone.[50]
Another ambiguity about Larsson�s original intentions rests in the use of special effects such as slap tongue and flutter tongue. The published score of 1952 indicates the use of slap tongue in only the final six eight-notes of the last movement. Flutter tongue does not appear at all in the concerto. Reading Alf Thoor�s commentaries in the Miniscore of 1953, one can learn that he appreciated Larsson�s way of introducing the saxophone to the concerto genre, without applying tricks and clowneries, so commonly associated with the instrument.
The three big representative figures in Swedish music during the 1930�s are undoubtedly Dag Wir�n (b. 1905), Gunnar de Frumerie (b. 1908) and Lars-Erik Larsson (b.1908). and one of the most representative compositions of this period is without question the Saxophone Concerto of Lars-Erik Larsson. This was produced in 1934 - the year in which Lars-Erik Larsson�s two-year old Sinfonietta for String Orchestra was given at the World Music Festival in Florence, and where it was one of the compositions that attached most attention. As far as is known the Saxophone Concerto was the first composition he produced after this success.
Between the two pieces there is a difference, which in retrospect is full of meaning. Sinfoinetta is still pointedly modernistic, for Lars-Erik Larsson was not unaware of what was happening on the continent. He had studied with Alban Berg an others in Vienna and in the drawers of his desk were essays in both twelve-tone technique and modern counterpoint. The Saxophone Concerto however is both elegiac and lyric, and even the allegro scherzando of the last movement has an undertone of reflection and mildness not specially associated with the character of this solo instrument. The composer has entirely refrained from the comedy and clowning which are part of the technical tricks of the saxophone[51]
Reading one of the reviews from Rascher�s performances in Stockholm 1936, it is evident that such tricks were originally present.
The last movement contained an interesting cadenza where the soloist went through the most complicated figurations. Even special effects such as the slap tongue technique reappeared, now for the third or fourth time. Such tricks seemed too vulgar, due to its frequent reappearance throughout the concerto. It could have been enough applying this kind of trick only to the very last phrase of the concerto, where such humorous effect really sounded motivated.[52]
The 1935 recording of Rascher and the Stockholm Radioorkestern conducted by the composer gives additional proof of the extensive use of both slap tongue as well as flutter tongue. At the end of the closing section, bar 101, the entire descending line on beat three and four is executed with slap tongue. The following trills in bar 102 and 103, are performed as flutter tongue. The equivalent section of the recapitulation is interpreted in the same way.[53] Such interpretation corresponds to the above quoted review from 1936, but does not relate to the published version from 1952. By examining Larsson�s autograph, dated in November 1934, the author has discovered that the entire closing section, bar 94-102, is marked with slap tongue. The half-notes in bar 102-103 are marked with the abbreviation fl. (flutter), followed by a wavy line. This notation appears in both the exposition and recapitulation. The interpretation of "tr" or "fl", however, can be disputed due to Larsson�s unclear handwriting. The first movement of the autograph is in pencil; the following pages are written in ink. A bound fair copy of the score in ink clearly verifies the notation as "fl". The entire closing section is marked with slap tongue as in the autograph. These primary sources of the music are located at Kungliga Musikaliska Akademiens Bibliotek in Stockholm. By these facts the author draws the conclusion that the idea of using slap tongue throughout the entire closing section might have been abandoned at an early stage, if it ever was performed that way. Due to the adverse criticism given in 1936, Larsson probably decided to follow the critic�s suggestion of limiting tricks and special effects to the final phrase of the last movement. At that performance where a critic had indicated "special effects such as the slap tongue technique reappeared, now for the third or fourth time," Rascher may have performed the additional twenty-eight measures of the cadenza in the first movement, those which appeared in the autograph, and which contained slap tongue. Larsson, however, decided to revise the cadenza. Similarly, the half-notes marked with flutter tongue in the primary sources were replaced with trills (tr.) in the published version of 1952. The slap tongue was completely removed as well from the first movement�s closing sections.
By the above described ambiguities concerning Larsson�s original intentions, it is only a question of time until new edition of Larsson�s concerto will appear in various publisher�s catalogue. Even though the manuscript is still intact, with exception for unclear handwriting, a completely accurate version may never be completed.
As noted in both Larsson, Brahms, and even in Mozart's Clarinet Concerto, the soloist has developed into the main attraction of the composition. Simultaneously, the performer, whom the composer had in mind when composing the work, has been influential by either technical suggestions or only as a source of inspiration. It has been clearly stated that some critics disliked some aspects of Rascher�s performance as well as the use of too many special effects. Even so, the opposite was enthusiastically expressed among other reviewers, who thought that the composition and the soloist became indivisible.
Rascher is not only a splendid virtuoso, but an interpreter who deserves great respect. Not only does he know how to depict Larsson�s playfulness and sometime witty humor, he also knows how to express passion in the adagio, resembling the music of Brahms, all in contrast to the Haydnesque character of the flanking movements.[54]
Compositions such as Larsson's Saxophone Concerto (and Mozart's Clarinet Concerto) have also contributed to a world-wide promotion of this new solo instrument. In the Danish journal Dansk musiktidsskrift, Aksel Agerby gave the following report:
.....Larsson's Saxophone Concerto, written for the famous virtuoso Sigurd Rascher. During 1935 Rascher gave almost twenty performances of the Concerto, in various countries. Rascher performed the Concerto at the D U T's concert in November, 1935, conducted by Ebbe Hamerik.[55]
In Sweden, a 1935 promotion piece about the concerto reported on broadcast performances throughout Europe, within the first few months after the premiere.
The concerto has been performed in Switzerland (twice broadcast in radio), and broadcast by the English Radio. Next Sunday, June 16, at 10:00 PM, the Swedish Radio will broadcast a performance with Sigurd Rascher and the Radio Orchestra, conducted by Adolf Wiklund. Rascher has also performed the concerto with G�vleborgs Symfoniorkester, conducted by Sten Frykberg.[56]
Throughout music history the soloist's role has developed from being only another member of Corelli's Concerti Grosso ensemble, through C.P.E. Bach's keyboard concertos, to unlike the soloist appears in front of the orchestra, as in Mozart's piano concertos. The solo part gained in compositional statue and purity above general orchestral writing. The focus on the soloist can be illustrated in various ways.
The significance of the Violoncello Concerto in C major by Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) is the very strict treatment of the ritornello form in the first movement. There are no interruptions of either tutti sections or solo episodes. The solo part uses basic material presented by the tutti. The second solo episode, which one would expect to be developmental, does not move further than to the secondary dominant and even touches the tonic before the return of the primary theme in the third solo episode. By leaving out the harmonic climax, expected in the classic style, the focus of the piece turns to the virtuosity of the solo part.
The Trumpet Concerto in Eb, composed for demonstrating the newly invented keyed trumpet, also focuses on showing off the possibilities of the soloist. However, because of the technical nature of the instrument, Haydn�s writing might appear to be simpler than was usual for him. The trumpet participates in the first tutti with simple triads before entering with the theme. Perhaps this was a way of maintaining the audience�s curiosity about what was possible on this new instrument, or merely to give the soloist a chance to "warm up", before beginning the more virtuostic display. Similarly, Larsson remains in the normal, comfortable range of the saxophone through most of the exposition, until the end of the second theme. This method of not challenging the altissimo register until the soloist is warmed up, is in contrast, for example, to Richard Strauss's expectation of his opera voices to attempt extremely high register's just after their entrances. Throughout the development, Larsson continually extends the range up into the altissimo register, where the major difficulties appear to concern the range. At this point the soloist is warmed up enough and still fresh to approach them with full control. In the second movement the soloist is challenged one last the (written) high E. Thereafter, in the finale, Larsson becomes more modest in his requests, due to the consideration that two movements have already proceeded it. The expansion of the range throughout the two first movements may also be merely a device to build up tension and drama through the composition.
In contrast to Beethoven�s Concertos with symphonic texture, which feature the orchestra as much as the soloist, Nicol� Paganini (1782-1840) gives no major attention to the orchestra. In the first movement of Violin Concerto in D major op.6, no.1, the three tutti sections,(94, 33, and 27 bars long respectively) make up only 39% of the first movement. Other than that, the orchestra does not contribute anything more than support for the harmony. On the other hand, the solo part presents, an extraordinary virtuosity, with parallel thirds, capriccio-like runs and inserted fermatas, which provide room for artistic display. This focus on the soloist is obvious throughout the piece, while less effort is made to create anything of interest in terms of harmonic progression. The first movement�s most remote modulations are to two B major sections, which appear at the end of the second tutti and in the middle of the second solo episode, respectively. The second movement is written in the relative minor, and the middle episode of the rondo in the finale, in the subdominant. Therefore, the piece has been written more as an opportunity to show of artistic skills than actually communicate a musical message.
This phenomena became a general trend for early romantic concertos. Johann Nepomuk Hummel (1778-1837) concertos contain rich embellished melodies while the orchestra solely acts as background. In Hummel's Piano Concerto in A minor, the soloist enters with an embellishment of the orchestral cadence similar to the Beethoven Violin Concerto. The subordinate role of the orchestra in Hummel's concertos became a model for Chopin's concertos. Other composers who had an influence on Chopin's writings were Ignaz Moscheles (1794-1870 and Friedrich Kalkbrenner (1785-1849).
At the same time, and as an on going influence on the development of the concerto, the opera continued to be a point of departure. Paganini's violin concerto resembles Italian operas by shifting between bravura and lyricism. Especially noticeable is the lyrical second movement of the Violin Concerto in D major no.1, op.6[57]. A similar blend of both virtuostic passages and lyrical themes is to be found in Larsson's first movement. This is a combination that can lead to ambiguity in the ultimate choice of tempo, which is one of the problems the soloist faces, when approaching the score of the Konsert fär Saxofon och Str�korkester.
Larsson himself expressed his concerns about the ultimate tempo of his compositions.
I remember a recording of one of the sonatines for piano. In one of the movement the pianist had a slightly different interpretation concerning the tempo. The somewhat too slow tempo did not optimally bring out the characteristics of the movement. However, the pianist took my suggestion too literally, and as a result the final outcome on the recording was too fast. To find the perfect tempo for a particular movement can sometime be extremely challenging. I prefer it slightly faster - it appeared somewhat boring at first - but maybe I should not have said anything at all.
It is of course impossible to expect all performers to choose exactly the same tempo. People have different pulse and perceive the text of the music differently, which results in small variants. An interpretation should not turn into something mechanical, but I have the opinion that one should not interpret the music too freely. Then, it might turn out as a completely different piece. What is written in the music should be respected. However, when I was young, I did not pay enough attention to expressing my self in detail, for example concerning phrasing.[58]
Concerning the tempo in the first movement of the Saxophone Concerto, a conflict occurs between the secondary theme and the movement in general. Notated in alla breve, Larsson gives the tempo indication as half-note equals 88. This tempo is quite applicable for the opening measures as well as for the secondary theme. On the contrary, much of the passagework in the solo part, containing runs and octave leaps, is challenged by such a tempo. The Rascher recording, conducted by the composer,[59] is performed fairly slowly compared to the tempo indication, which causes the entire movement to become lifeless. This choice of tempo gives Rascher a comfortable speed for the tricky phrase in bar 118.
Larsson stated that in his youth he was not too concerned in his notation of phrasing. The passage of octave leaps in the solo part 41-46 provides an example of this. In combination with Larsson's lack of knowledge about performance problems on the saxophone, it is worthy to question whether or not these leaps can be articulated one way or the other. A change in articulation might increase the chances for a more crisp outcome of this passage without it being in conflict with the rather fast tempo that Larsson indicates and which, indeed, is very acceptable for the lyrical sections of the movement. In this recording, Rascher does articulate these octaves, even at the slower tempo. Such articulation does not stand in conflict with the general style of the movement, and was obviously approved by the composer.
For the finale, marked "Allegro scherzando," Rascher and Larsson agree on an average marching tempo, but the soloist is technically challenged by the end of the first phrase. As in the first movement, Rascher takes liberty in adding his articulation to the first phrase.[60]
Even if Larsson expected performers of his music to follow his tempo indications as literally as possible, he intended to keep all such indications as economical as possible, in order to avoid exaggeration.
I am also, concerning tempo, very afraid to write, for example, a ritardando. Nine times out of ten it becomes exaggerated in performance. That is why I only indicate ritardando where it should be a very large ritardando. It can otherwise be misunderstood - I am actually extremely scared of giving directives.
Even though it is not written in the music, there are always places when it is appropriate for a more free interpretation. It is like with Mozart and Haydn - it can sound like a musical box.[61]
In this regard, and considering that Larsson uses a classical model for the concerto, much of the notation is very conservative, in contrast to other composers of the time. The second movement must be interpreted through additional suggestions from the performer, especially in regard to the phrasing and application of, for example, ritardandos. Marked Adagio, the fundamental tempo of the second movement is left open for a freer interpretation. As in the first movement, however, performers will often struggle with a conflict between an opening with slow quarter notes, and the faster technical work, which thwarts them from finding an ideal tempo that suites both elements.
The earlier tendency towards extolling the soloist, as seen in Paganini and Chopin, is continued by Felix Bartholdy Mendelssohn (1809-1847) in the Violin Concerto in E minor, written in 1844. Here, the concept of ritornello is almost eliminated, leaving only one tutti section between the first and second solo section and with the beginning of the recapitulation left to the orchestra. Even the opening section leaves out an expected introduction by the orchestra, allowing the soloist to introduce the primary theme. This is then reversed in the recapitulation, where the soloist becomes the accompanist to the orchestra. The lack of an opening tutti places the piece in contrast to earlier concertos, such as Beethoven�s Violin Concerto with its extensive double exposition. It also becomes an idiom for concertos to come.
Not only has Larsson adopted the idea of excluding the tutti exposition, but the very first bar of Larsson's concerto is almost identical to Mendelssohn's opening. In both concertos the accompaniment consists of arpeggiated thirds in eight notes, above a bass line in pizzicato strings (Mendelssohn adding clarinet, bassoon and timpani for color). In both, the soloist enters on the second half of the bar, with a lyrical line in an alla breve pulse. In so doing, both composers have optimally elevated the prominence of the solo line and the very entrance for the soloist. The non-distinct ending of the cadenza in Larsson�s first movement, which avoids the classical trill, has been mentioned in previous the chapter. By examining the equivalent section of Mendelssohn's first movement, it is evident that Mendelssohn�s way of deleting the standard ending of the cadenza, appears as a possible model for Larsson. By observing these various similarities, it seems clear that Larsson has given prominence to the soloist by the application of similar devices used by his romantic predecessors. In other words, it is possible to conclude that Larsson had later models other than the classical concerto form in mind when composing his Saxophone Concerto.
Because of the genre of solo concertos which places emphasis on the soloist and displays his/her virtuosity, Larsson naturally had found a model that fitted his purpose. He was able to present a new solo instrument to the concerto genre in general, and to Swedish art music in particular. With very little attention to any grandiose orchestration (string orchestra) of the accompaniment, Larsson created an even greater focus on the soloist and the timbre of the saxophone. Although Mozart omitted the oboe, his scoring for the clarinet concerto embodies much greater orchestrational tecture. With inspiration from Sigurd Rascher and with Rascher's capacity to control the instrument, a concerto for saxophone came into existence, which followed the trend of virtuosity developed by the compositions discussed above. Without Rascher in mind, a less virtuoustic concerto might have been the result, since Larsson himself did not play the instrument, and usually, by the nature of his general output, his style of composition did not favor virtuosity. Even in his private life, Larsson does not appear to have been a "solistic" person who enjoyed standing out in the crowd.
Concerts? ( A relieved sigh), "that belongs to the past." Gatherings, big receptions, cameras and microphones - that kind of life had never appealed to Larsson in the first place.[62]
Luckily, Larsson did not dedicate the concerto to a less accomplished saxophonist, for this might have led to the same complication as occurred with Tschaikovsky's Piano Concerto in Bb,no.1, op23. Peter Tschaikovsky (1840-1893) was, unlike composers such as Mozart and Brahms, not a virtuoso pianist. He admitted that his most prominent feature was lyrical melody writing while he saw himself weak in form. He used Ukrainian folk melodies in his writing, and in this concerto, a French melody, which referred to a previous French engagement of his. Initially, the Piano Concerto in Bb, no.1, op. 23 was dedicated to Nikolay Rubenstein, who, after playing through it, ripped its non-pianistic writing and lack of form. It was finally dedicated to Hans von B�low and premiered by him in the Boston Music Hall on October 25, 1875.[63]
Attempts to meet a better understanding between soloist and composer were taken under consideration in the process of Brahms' Violin Concerto. By reading the correspondence between Brahms and his close friend Joseph Joachim, it is obvious that the Violin Concerto underwent advising from the soloist. Although, it seems as if Brahms did not adopt to Joachim's suggestion concerning the solo part, but only responded to advice given about the composition in general.[64]
On the contrary, some romantic concertos which did not elevate any virtuosos or promote any new instruments for the solo stage, followed an opposite trend. Beethoven's (1770-1827) Violin Concerto in D written in 1806 shows similarities with contemporary French violin, which utilized a march-like character and heroic motives. The length of the first movement, 535 measures, also indicates a revolutionary era. The length and the use of only a few short motives might place the piece in the category of a symphonic concerto rather than a solo concerto. This is true in the way motives are presented as much in the orchestra as in the solo part. The interaction between soloist and orchestra occurs throughout, and the soloist is only embellishes the material in the orchestra periodically. Virtuosity in the solo part is a rarity. This type of writing does not appear as a possible source of inspiration for Larsson�s concerto. Nevertheless, other characteristics of the romantic period can been found in Larsson�s writing, and will discussed in the following chapter.
Thematic Metamorphosis
Larsson's respect for the past is evident by his adoption of fairly major trends in the history of the concerto. It is evident that at the stage in his career when he wrote the saxophone concerto, he was not concerned about contributing to revolutionary ideas or experimenting with contemporary elements. However, it is obvious that parts of his harmonic approach belong in the twentieth century, as well as traces of elements that were viewed as progressive devices during the post classical era.
I do not believe in revolution but in evolution. Music of good quality will always remain through the future. It belongs to eternity.[65]
By such a statement it is possible to accept the fact that Larsson had a strong affection for music of quality, from any historical period or style. What then is good music for Larsson?
If anyone had an answer for that...! Maybe it is the music that remains loved by many, for a long period of time. It is often light and clear, "kleinkunst"; "twinkle, twinkle little star" by Mozart, F�r Elise by Beethoven, Schubert's lieders, "lullaby" by Brahms, Tr�umerie by Schumann....But we should not forget music written today which is perceived as being complicated, but might be viewed differently by coming generations.[66]
The first qoute, "I do not believe in revolution but in evolution" reflects something fundamental in Larsson's philosophical thinking that can be associated with his adoption of thematic transformation. To what extent did Larsson identify himself with other romantic traits?
Along with the nineteenth-century concept of expressing individual feelings, the idea of the artist as someone struggling with strong longings and a serious intention to dedicate himself to art was elevated. Carl Maria von Weber's Konzertst�ck in F minor for piano, op,79, (1821) shows such romantic idioms by having all movements (or sections) connected to each other and the underlying story in prose (this, however, was never published with the music). This idea, described in one of Weber's letters already in 1815, foreshadows a new era to come. However, Weber's intentions were probably more similar to Beethoven's titles in the Pastoral symphony, which try to evoke certain feelings from the listener rather than actually telling a story. Similar reflections of this are found in the second movement of Dvorak�s Cello Concerto in B minor,op.104, (1895). The song quoted in the middle episode was associated with Dvorak�s sister-in-law, with whom he was secretly in love. Large contrasts between lyricism and drama are created by alternations of texture, shifting between use of only a few winds and the cello and the full orchestra.
The romantic notation of underlying programmatic elements, goes beyond what Larsson found applicable to his compositions. As stated in his biography, Larsson was not in favor of submitting programmatic descriptions along with his works. Was he attracted to romanticism and fantasy in fiction? What books did he read?
Only non-fiction. As a youngster I dreamed about the day when I became rich enough to buy the collected works by August Stringberg. And now, there it is(pointing toward the bookshelf).[67]
The Swedish writer from turn of the century, August Strindberg, can hardly be conceived of as a romantic influence on Larsson. In contrast to the fairy tales and poetic sources influencing Larsson's colleagues of the nineteenth century, Stringberg's style of writing, even though fiction, has strong biographical references, depicted in combination with strong political sarcasm toward contemporary society. Larsson's music stayed within the boundaries of absolute music, remaining within the waters which, according to Wagner, Beethoven explored completely:
Beethoven... sailed the wide shoreless sea of absolute music to its limits"[68]. Nor did Larsson�s personal outlook resemble the stereotypical picture of a romantic composer - at least according to journalist Bo Lid�n�s description.
At first, Larsson does not appear as the stereotypical character of a composer. No big ,fluffy hair, waving arms, nor any spontaneous attempt on the keyboard, improvising a new "allegro vivace". He more likely resembles a bank clerk or an owner of a barber shop.[69]
Instead, Larsson inherited only compositional techniques such as thematic transformation and thematic unification from his romantic predecessors. For Larsson these devices were labeled as thematic metamorphosis. Larsson's contemporary, Dag Wir�n, thought he was the first one to make use of such techniques in his fourth symphony (1952); but he soon learned that other composers had made use of them previously. During the 1950�s, the term grew common, especially among Danish composers, including Vagn Holmboe.[70] What does thematic metamorphosis represent? According to critic Bo Wallner, Vagn Holmboe gave the following explanation.
The desire to go through changes, to become someone else and still maintain one's identity is obviously something that is deeply rooted in mankind. Development through metamorphosis, whether it happens through sections, or appears in an unbroken context, is governed by strong logical forces. Therefore, each step in the process appears as a necessity, which increases step by step, pointing toward an endless transformation.[71]
Vagn Holmboe's colleague Niels Viggo Bentzon even went so far far as to describe thematic metamorphosis as "the form of our century", being a parallel to the fugue of the baroque, the sonata form of the classical and romantic period, as well as a successor of the variation techniques used during the romantic period. Calling thematic metamorphosis the most significant form of present time might be an exaggeration, but its emergence from the past can hardly be denied.[72]
Viewed as a romantic composer, over time Beethoven became less formal, using recitative, as in the slow movement of the Piano Sonata op.110. He wrote out his cadenzas, the phrase structure became harmonically more open ended and he applied the use of thematic quotations from the preceding movement as a unifying factor, as in the finale of the Ninth Symphony. Similar thematic integration is found in the first movement of Robert Schumann's (1810-1856) Piano Concerto in A minor, op.54, written in 1841, four years before the succeeding movements first existed as a fantasia for piano.
New features of instrumentation are heard in the Piano Concerto by giving the wind instrument greater significance than the strings. Because of the close relation of the themes, the more prominent progression of the movement is the variation of texture and character. Still though, the movement follows a classical format in sonata concerto form with a double exposition and the use of closely related keys. The finale is monothematic, resembling the first movement. To label this movement as a rondo might be ambiguous since the theme does not return in the tonic each time, thereby reflecting upon the concept of transformation.
In the works of Antonio Dvorak (1841-1904) one can see motivic integration with the transformation providing with both unity and dramatic images. By using one motivic idea transformed into different characters, unity is gained and in the same time different faces of the same theme are presented. Parallels to this are found in the development of the nineteenth-century opera, where it probably originated. In the traditional opera buffa all characters had a specific and unchangeable image. In the romantic opera, characters became more realistic, showing different modes and feelings, making them more separate individuals than representatives of a stock character. In Dvorak�s Cello Concerto in B minor, this is illustrated by having the primary theme presented by different instruments and appearing in transformed fashions.
The primary theme itself, divided into small motives, later appears separately. It also appears as a rhythmic element in the transition. It occurs in augmentation and is used sequentially. The fact that the primary theme first is presented by the tutti in B minor and then is repeated by the soloist in B major creates a significant change of mode within the same theme (= persona, character). The changes of tempi throughout also contribute to the different dramatic images, which give the piece a character associated with the symphonic poem. The third movement gives this otherwise ever changeable piece a rounded form by quoting both the primary theme from the first movement and the song from the second movement, obviously resembling Beethoven�s Ninth Symphony.
Unifying characteristics for these composition are the trends toward thematic unification. One main idea becomes the fundamental point of departure for the composition, a procedure which would be labeled by Franz Liszt (1811-1886) as thematic transformation. This compositional device utilizes motives derived from each other and contains long transitional sections with unresolved harmony. Therefore, as Niels Viggo Bentzon indicates, the concept of metamorphosis is by no means new. In the chapter on Lars-Erik Larsson och "30-talisterna" in Svensk musik 2., Herbert Connor talks about the influences that had a strong impact on Larsson's compositions, from 1930-1970[73]. Connor mentions Larsson's use of thematic metamorphosis as a compositional tool. As seen in Larsson's own article "Missa brevis", Larsson illustrates the normal progress in his compositional procedures.
As an illustrative example, Larsson reconstructed the composition of his mass Missa brevis. The text is provided with incipits of sketches, as well as of the final score. This documentation, as discussed in the chapter Analysis of Op. 14, gives an extraordinary detailed and interesting illustration of how Larsson himself thinks about the process of composing in his own works. Larsson emphasizes the fact that he is not aware of many of the relations between preceding sketches and the final outcome until subsequently reviewing his material[74]. Nevertheless, the consciousness of thematic relations is obvious. By making use of thematic metamorphosis in order to explore possibilities for the continuation of the compositional process, Larsson naturally ends up with a style of composing which provides his compositions with a more or less thematic unification and a continuously thematic transformation.
Even though Larsson referred, in his discussion, to a composition from the 1950�s, it does not mean that the nature of Larsson's creative instinct was much different twenty years earlier. Similar thematic unification and development, therefore, should be possible to be traced in the Saxophone Concerto. With the same incorrectness by which Dag Wir�n thought himself to be the pioneer of thematic metamorphosis, it is inaccurate to determine that the application of such elements is only to be found in Larsson's later works.
As outlined in the formal analysis of the Saxophone Concerto, the fundamental use of ascending and descending sequential thirds in the accompaniment of the first movement is transformed into the arpeggiation of minor thirds in the solo part of the finale. By examining the first five pitches of the solo part in the first movement, the transformation of this motive can be found in the beginning of the secondary theme (bar 47-48). This concept of leading tones is integrated in many of the virtuosic passages that appear in the solo part. Furthermore, these virtuostic passages (ex. bar 14-18, 38-40), consisting of arpeggiated triads with upper and/or lower neighbors of each triadic pitch reappears in transmutation as the closing theme. Even the inner parts of the closing section in the first movement have an independent descending line of thirds (82-87), which comprise the major unifying element of the whole work. Again, it is possible to determine influences from styles of composing, deriving from the pre-classical era. Further, Niels Viggo Bentzon's viewpoint which associates thematic metamorphosis with the baroque fugue, has to be emphasized. By examining Bach's Wohltemperiertes Klavier the similarities are evident.[75]
Subsequently, the new terminology, "thematic metamorphosis", which reached acceptance through Danish composers� use of the term during the 1950's, did not constitute anything new.
The concept of thematic transformation did not leave Larsson's arsenal of composition tools. The last of his twelve concertinos Op.45, from the middle of 1950�s, is one significant example. Here, the finale of the Concertino for Piano has reminiscences from all previous works in the series.[76] Even among his latest works, such as the Musica permutatio, 1980 (music of permutation), the concept, even the title, remains clear. Bergendal associated the concept of transformation, continuous changes, with Larsson's continuous search for new styles in general throughout his composing career. Further, Bergendal states that even though the Musica permutatio does not contain a single fugue, it does bring forth associations with Bach's later achievements, Kunst der fuge, where the title fuge, similar to the title "music of permutation", represents flight and continuous spiraling.[77] This again, defines the fact that Larsson's techniques of thematic metamorphosis had ancestors in the baroque period.
Larsson's own description, in the article Missa brevis, of the use of such tools, consciously used or not, which allows him to move beyond stagnation in the processes of composing, is an honest and up front declaration of his own frustration in composition.[78] Contrastingly, and in addition to such modesty, Larsson expresses his admiration for one of his own student's ability to never be caught up by such stagnation. This student was Bo Linde, who died at the early age, of thirty-seven.
I often found myself being extraordinary curious about his arrival to his lessons. It never happened that Bo Linde came to his lessons in a bad mood, mumbling something like having a bad week or have gotten completely stuck in his work. No, he always tempestuously entered the room, threw his coat on a chair and the manuscript on the piano. It often happened that he immediately took a pencil and made some corrections, that he had thought of on his way to the Academy.[79]
There is virtue in moderation.
Considering the definition of Larsson as the composer who takes the middle course, Larsson has sailed the wide shoreless sea of the concerto genre to its limits - without finding any island where he felt comfortable enough to stay. In other words, Larsson has adopted the various features of different periods. Consciously, Larsson approached all foreign elements with respect and honesty, resulting in a very pure and clear mixture of traditional styles.
Larsson's intent was to write music which even a non-professional listener could comprehend, perceive and appreciate in the old fashion way.[80]
When Larsson was nominated and given the 1957 Cultural Award by Sydsvenska Dagbladet, Sten Broman stressed these characteristics of Larsson, which represent clarity and comprehension.
His refined artistic integrity is as impressive as his technical and formal clarity. The same wording describes his personality.[81]
Generally speaking, the concept of ritornello seems to be a characteristic trait throughout the history of the concerto. The same is true of the three movement plan, with sonata form in the first movement, an ABA form resembling the dacapo aria, for the second movement and a rondo or sonata rondo for the finale. Larsson applies these without exceptions.
With Mozart, the first-movement-form was standardized, with a double exposition and with the following tutti serving as either a transition or as closing elements. Larsson, however, modifies the concept of double exposition by reversing the order of the tutti and solo statements of the primary theme. In Mozart, interaction between the orchestra and the soloist becomes characteristic. This is illustrated especially in Larsson's development sections. On the contrary, the development of the exposed soloist emerges, coming to its full bloom with Chopin and Paganini, where the orchestra only functions as accompaniment.
In Larsson�s concerto, virtoustic display is applied by permitting the saxophone to soar into the altissimo register above the string accompaniment and by omitting the accompaniment during technical passages in the solo part. In the writing of Beethoven, the length of the piece starts to increase. The first movement of the Brahms' Violin Concerto (571 bars) is more than twice as long as the first movement of Mozart's Violin Concerto in D, K218 (220 bars). In this regard Larsson stays, in contrast to his neo-classical predecessor Brahms, within the classical norms by presenting a first movement of 273 bars.
In Robert Schumann's Piano Concerto, new features of instrumentations began to take place, which give greater significance to the wind instruments 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 bassons, 2 horns, and 2 trombones), especially in the exposition. The same is true for Brahms� Piano Concerto in Bb no2, op.83, (1881) where an increase of interaction between different groups of instruments appears throughtout, resembling the texture of the concertante. The nineteeth century focused on the the philosophy of the individual. This is best illustrated in opera where more realistic characters where created which presented different sides of their personality. Likewise, the solo part in Brahms Piano Concerto begins to show different characters. The concept of transformation developed more in Dvor�k's Violoncello Concerto. As the opera developed from number opera to scene opera the clear division between movements and tuttis and solo sections began to disappear. Larsson, however, retained a clear division of solo and tutti section, but the concept of unifing the composition by thematic transformation was also integrated in Larsson's Saxophone Concerto. In order to summarize Larsson's path through the history of the concerto, the shortest and most applicable definition would be, "go for the middle course - there is virtue in moderation".
[1]John H. Yoell, The Nordic Sound. (Boston: Crescendo Publidhing Co., 1974), p.139.
[2]Herbert Connor, Samtal med tons�ttare, (Stockholm: Natur och kultur, 1971), p.22.
[3] Gäran Bergendal "Lars-Erik Larsson p� lyssnarens sida," Tonfallet (n4 1989):9-13.
[4]Herbert Connor, Samtal med tons�ttare. (Stockholm: Natur och Kultur, 1971), p.164.
[5]Bo Wallner, Lars-Erik Larsson och hans Concertinor. (Stockholm: Radiotj�nst, 1957),p.12.
[6]Herbert Connor, Samtal med tons�ttare, (Stockholm: Natur och kultur, 1971),p.20.
[7]Herbert Connor, Samtal med tons�ttare, (Stockholm: Natur och kultur, 1971),p.21.
[8]New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. "Bach, Johann Sebastian," by Douglass Seaton.
[9]Walter Kolneder, New Oxford History of Music, vol. 6, Concert Music (1630-1750), (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p.357.
[10]Herbert Connor, Samtal med tons�ttare, (Stockholm: Natur och kultur, 1971),p.25.
[11]New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vivaldi, Antonio, by Michael Talbot.
[12]New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "Bach, Carl Philip Emanuel," by Malcolm Boyd.
[13] Johann Joachim Quantz, On Playing the Flute, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1966), chapters 28-39.
[14]Bo Wallner, Lars-Erik Larsson och hans Concertinor. (Stockholm: Radiotj�nst, 1957),p.11.
[15]"Larsson i 6A." Aftonbladet, 8 April 1985.
[16] The Mozart Companion. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), The concertos by Friederich Blume, p.216.
[17]Hindemith Jahrbuch 1972, ed. by Paul Hindemith - Institute, (Mainz: B. Schott�s Sähne, 1972), p.185.
[18] New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "Brahms, Johannes," by Heinz Becker.
[19] New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Huberman, Bronislaw, by Boris Schwarz.
11 New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "Brahms, Johannes," by Heinz Becker
[20] Donald Francis Tovey, Essays in Musical Analysis, v.3: Concertos, (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1936), p.126.
[21]"Musiken m�ste sv�va." Dagens nyheter, 26 June 1983.
[22]W. R. Tenney, "The Mozart Clarinet Concerto," Woodwind World (April 1955): 4-5,10
[23]J.L.Schwartz, W. W. Brown, Self-Study Module for History of Music in the Classic Period,(Evanston: School of Music - Graduate Division Northwestern University,1986)
[24] W. R. Tenney, "The Mozart Clarinet Concerto",
Woodwind World (April 1955): 4-5, lO.
[25]D. J. Grout, C.V. Palisca, A History of Western Music,4th ed. (New York : W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 1988), p.607.
[26] Nicolas Slonimsky, Music Since 1900, 5th ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, An Imprint of Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994).
[27]Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8th ed. by Nicolas Slonimsky. New York: Schirmer Books A division of Macmillan, Inc. 1992.
[28] Nicolas Slonimsky, Music Since 1900, 5th ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, An Imprint of Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994).
[29]Teddy Nyblom, De nya herrarna. (Stockholm: Nyblom, 1959),p.287-93.
[30]Sten Broman, "Lars-Erik Larsson," Räster i Radio/TV (n7 1946):10,16.
[31]Interview with Monica Welander, B�stad, Sweden, 21 December 1994.
[32]Bo Wallner, Lars-Erik Larsson och hans concertinor(Stockholm: Radiotj�nst, 1957) p.143
[33]Interview with Monica Welander, B�stad, Sweden, 21 December 1994.
[34]The autograph is held at Kungliga Musikaliska Akademiens Bibliotek, Stockholm.
[35]W. R. Tenney, "The Mozart Clarinet Concerto", Woodwind World (April 1955): 4-5, lO.
[36]Ibid
[37]A. Hacker, "Mozart and the Basset Clarinet", The Musical Times ,(April 1969): 359 - 362.
[38]H.C. Robbins Landon, The Mozart Compendium - A Guide to Mozart's Life and Music ( N.Y. : Schirmer Books, 1990) p.270.
[39]Orkesterfäreningens symfonikonsert." Norrkäpings tidningar, 28 November, 1934.
[40]"Teater Musik Film." Dagens Nyheter, 23 January, 1936.
[41]Sveriges Radio, grammofonarkivet. Konsert fär saxofon och str�korkester, op.14. (Stockholm: Radiotj�nst, Reference #: RE 715/7, 1935).
[42]Knud Ketting, "BIS CD catalogue," Nordic Sound (June 1985):21.
[43]Per Skans, jacket notes to Konsert fär saxofon och str�korkester op.14. BIS, 1983.-LP. Pekka Savijoki, Jorma Panula/Stockholms Nya Kammarorkester.
[44]Knud Ketting, "BIS CD catalogue," Nordic Sound (June 1985):21.
[45]Konsert fär saxofon och str�korkester op.14. Caprice, 1984.- LP. Christer Johnsson, Leif Segerstam/Radiosymfonikerna.
[46]Interview with Christer Johnsson, Kungliga Musikhägskolan Stockholm, December 6, 1994.
[47]"Ett divertimento tolkat med espri." Svenska Dagbladet, 18 November, 1988.
[48]"Unga musikers kv�ll," Sm�landsposten, 6 December, 1991.
[49] "Swedish modern music: Old and new world!" The Sun - USA News, July 1994.
[50]"Swedish modern music: Old and new world!" Nordstjernan, 30 June 1994.
[51]Konsert fär saxofon och str�korkester op.14. Miniscore. (Stockholm: AB Carl Gehrmans Färlag, 1953).
[52]"Teater Musik Film." Dagens Nyheter, 23 January, 1936.
[53]Sveriges Radio, grammofonarkivet. Konsert fär saxofon och str�korkester, op.14. (Stockholm: Radiotj�nst, Reference #: RE 715/7, 1935).
[54]"Tilja, film och rad." Svenska Dagbladet, 23 January, 1936.
[55]Agerby, Aksel. "Fire Svenske Komponister," Dansk Musiktidsskrift 11 (n1 1936):25.
[56]Fyris and Lundag�rd, "Saxofonkonsert," Räster i Radio/TV (n25 1935):10,13.
[57] Robert Layton, A Companion to the Concerto, (New York: Schirmer Books A Division of Macmillan Inc., 1988), p.131-132, 140-141.
[58]Olof Häjer, "Lars-Erik Larsson och pianot," Musikrevy 34 (n5 1979): 230-35.
[59]Sveriges Radio, grammofonarkivet. Konsert fär saxofon och str�korkester, op.14. (Stockholm: Radiotj�nst, Reference #: RE 715/7, 1935).
[60]Sveriges Radio, grammofonarkivet. Konsert fär saxofon och str�korkester, op.14. (Stockholm: Radiotj�nst, Reference #: RE 715/7, 1935).
[61]Olof Häjer, "Lars-Erik Larsson och pianot," Musikrevy 34 (n5 1979): 230-35.
[62]"Larsson i 6A." Aftonbladet, 8 April 1985.
[63]New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "Tschaikovsky, Peter" by David Brown.
[64] Edwin Evans, Handbook to the Chamber & Orchestral Music of Johannes Brahms, (London: William Reeves Bookseller Limited, 1933-35), p.50.
[65]"Lars-Erik Larsson och Uppsala." UNT, 8 January 1987.
[66]"Larsson i 6A." Aftonbladet, 8 April 1985.
[67]"Larsson i 6A." Aftonbladet, 8 April 1985.
[68] Oliver Strunk, Source Readings in Music History From Classical Antiquity through the Romantic era,(New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,1950) p.886.
[69]"Larsson i 6A." Aftonbladet, 8 April 1985.
[70]Herbert Connor, Svensk musik 2. Fr�n Midsommarvaka till Aniara, (Lund, Sweden: Bonniers, 1977), p.312.
[71]Bo Wallner, V�r Tids Musik i Norden, Fr�n 20-tal till 60-tal,(Stockholm: Nordiska Musikfärlaget, 1968), p.165.
[72]Bo Wallner, V�r Tids Musik i Norden, Fr�n 20-tal till 60-tal,(Stockholm: Nordiska Musikfärlaget, 1968), p.167.
[73]Herbert Connor, Svensk musik 2. Fr�n Midsommarvaka till Aniara. (Lund, Sweden: Bonniers, 1977), p.321-313.
[74]Larsson, Lars-Erik. "Missa brevis." In Modern nordisk tid,pp. 109-136. (Stockholm: Bengtsson, 1957).
[75] Bo Wallner, V�r Tids Musik i Norden, Fr�n 20-tal till 60-tal,(Stockholm: Nordiska Musikfärlaget, 1968), p.167.
[76]Gästa Percy, Konserterande fär alla instrument, Musikrevy 13 (1958):84.
[77]Gäran Bergendal, "Lars-Erik Larsson p� lyssnarens sida," Tonfallet (n4 1989):9-13.
[78] Larsson, Lars-Erik. "Missa brevis." In Modern nordisk tid,pp. 109-136. (Stockholm: Bengtsson, 1957).
[79]Lars-Erik Larsson and others, "Om och till Bo Linde," Musikrevy 25 (n6 1970): 315.
[80]Gäran Bergendal, "Lars-Erik Larsson p� lyssnarens sida," Tonfallet (n4 1989):9-13.
[81]"Lars-Erik Larsson däd." Sydsvenska Dagbladet - sn�llposten, 28 December 1986